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'''John Howard (1726-1790)''': Travelling some 80,000 km during the late 18th century and visiting hundreds of jails in Britain and numerous European countries including Russia, [[John Howard]] published the first edition of ''The State of the Prisons'' in 1777. It gave very detailed accounts of the prisons he had visited, including plans and maps, together with detailed instructions on the necessary improvements, especially regarding hygiene and cleanliness, the lack of which was causing many deaths. It is this work that has been credited as establishing the practice of single-celling in the United Kingdom and, by extension, in the United States. | '''John Howard (1726-1790)''': Travelling some 80,000 km during the late 18th century and visiting hundreds of jails in Britain and numerous European countries including Russia, [[John Howard]] published the first edition of ''The State of the Prisons'' in 1777. It gave very detailed accounts of the prisons he had visited, including plans and maps, together with detailed instructions on the necessary improvements, especially regarding hygiene and cleanliness, the lack of which was causing many deaths. It is this work that has been credited as establishing the practice of single-celling in the United Kingdom and, by extension, in the United States. | ||
'''Frank Tannenbaum (1893-1969)''', ex-prisoner turned professor of criminology and author of ''Wall Shadows'' (1922) as well as ''Crime and the Community'' (1938). One of the forerunners of | '''Frank Tannenbaum (1893-1969)''', ex-prisoner turned professor of criminology and author of ''Wall Shadows'' (1922) as well as ''Crime and the Community'' (1938). One of the forerunners of interactionist perspectives and the labeling approach as well as of [http://www.convictcriminology.org/about.htm convict criminology], his statements include “No more self-defeating device could be discovered than the one society has developed in dealing with the criminal. It proclaims his career in such loud and dramatic forms that both he and the community accept the judgment as a fixed description. He becomes conscious of himself as a criminal, and the community expects him to live up to his reputation, and will not credit him if he does not live up to it” and "We must destroy the prison, root and branch. That will not solve our problem, but it will be a good beginning.... Let us substitute something. Almost anything will be an improvement. It cannot be worse. It cannot be more brutal and more useless." | ||
'''Donald Clemmer (1903-1965)''': [[Donald Clemmer]] coined the word "prisonization" in his work ''The Prison Community'' (1940; 1958). The term refers to the process by which the psyches and behaviors of convicts are molded by the social and structural hallmarks of prison life. Clemmer suggested that prisonization not only thwarts attempts to rehabilitate convicts but also inspires behavior contrary to accepted standards of social conduct. He was neither the first nor the last to describe this philosophical flaw in the concept of legal incarceration. (His later counter-term ''correctionalization'' did not catch on.) . | '''Donald Clemmer (1903-1965)''': [[Donald Clemmer]] coined the word "prisonization" in his work ''The Prison Community'' (1940; 1958). The term refers to the process by which the psyches and behaviors of convicts are molded by the social and structural hallmarks of prison life. Clemmer suggested that prisonization not only thwarts attempts to rehabilitate convicts but also inspires behavior contrary to accepted standards of social conduct. He was neither the first nor the last to describe this philosophical flaw in the concept of legal incarceration. (His later counter-term ''correctionalization'' did not catch on.) . | ||