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== Initial Questions==
== Initial Questions==
#In how far is the prison a product of the process of civilization? (Find out about Pieter Spierenburg's research)
#In how far is the prison a product of the process of civilization?  
#Is the prison a success story? In how far? In how far not?
#Is the prison a success story? In how far? In how far not?
#Why is it that for many countries, it is nearly impossible to have a decent prison system? What are the costs of building and running a decent prison system? What does it take apart from money?  
#Why is it that for many countries, it is nearly impossible to have a decent prison system? What are the costs of building and running a decent prison system? What does it take apart from money?  
#What does a lack of funds, training, and attitude do the prisons and the prisoners?
#What does a lack of funds, training, and attitude do to prisons and prisoners?
#There is a general complaint that jails and prisons are overcrowded, underfunded, and unfocused these days. But hasn't that always been somewhat true? What does it mean if, as a case in point, almost immediately after the first American prisons were built, the Walnut Street Jail (1790), the Auburn Prison (1819), the Western Pennsylvania Prison (1826), and the Eastern Pennsylvania Prison (1829) were full, and within a few years, they were expanded or new prisons were under construction?  
#There is a general complaint that jails and prisons are overcrowded, underfunded, and unfocused these days. But hasn't that always been somewhat true? What does it mean if, as a case in point, almost immediately after the first American prisons were built, the Walnut Street Jail (1790), the Auburn Prison (1819), the Western Pennsylvania Prison (1826), and the Eastern Pennsylvania Prison (1829) were full, and within a few years, they were expanded or new prisons were under construction?  
#Is it true that the prison system is suffering from some basic philosophical contradictions making functionality impossible?
#Is it true that the prison system is suffering from some basic philosophical contradictions making functionality impossible?
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#What are the legitimate functions of a prison?
#What are the legitimate functions of a prison?
#How well equipped is the prison to fulfill them?
#How well equipped is the prison to fulfill them?
#What would a system look like that was streamlined to fulfil legitimate purposes?
#What would a system look like that only served legitimate purposes?


== Prison Research ==
== Prison Research ==
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===Internet Sites===
===Internet Sites===
*[http://aca.org American Correctional Association]]
*[http://aca.org American Correctional Association]
*American Friends Service Committee (a Quaker organization interested in correctional reform): www.afsc.org
*[http://afsc.org American Friends Service Committee (a Quaker organization in correctional reform)]
*[https://www.apt.ch/pt/ Association for the Prevention of Torture]
*[https://www.apt.ch/pt/ Association for the Prevention of Torture]
*Bureau of Justice Statistics (information available on all manner of criminal justice topics): http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/
*[http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/ Bureau of Justice Statistics (information on all manner of U.S. criminal justice topics)]
*Federal Bureau of Prisons: www.bop.gov
*[http://bop.gov Federal Bureau of Prisons]
*Global Prisons Research Network: https://sites.google.com/site/gprnnetwork/
*[https://sites.google.com/site/gprnnetwork/ Global Prisons Research Network]
*Human Rights Watch: https://www.hrw.org/pt
*[https://www.hrw.org/pt Human Rights Watch]
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_incarceration_rate Incarceration rate by country, en.wikipedia]
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_incarceration_rate Incarceration rate by country]
*Innocence Project: https://www.innocenceproject.org
*[https://www.innocenceproject.org Innocence Project]
*Pew Institute: http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/08/02/chart-of-the-week-the-problem-of-prison-overcrowding/
*[https://www.facebook.com/groups/769640409857502/?fref=nf Latin American Prison Research Group (on facebook)]
*The Sentencing Project: www.sentencingproject.org
*[http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/08/02/chart-of-the-week-the-problem-of-prison-overcrowding/ Pew Institute: Chart of the week on prison overcrowding]
*The Williams Institute—UCLA School of Law: www .law.ucla.edu/williamsinstitute
*[http://www.sentencingproject.org The Sentencing Project]
*[http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/TBSearch.aspx?Lang=en&TreatyID=12&DocTypeID=23&DocTypeCategoryID=9 UN Subcommittee on the Prevention of Torture (SPT), Country Reports]
*[http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/TBSearch.aspx?Lang=en&TreatyID=12&DocTypeID=23&DocTypeCategoryID=9 UN Subcommittee on the Prevention of Torture (SPT)]
*Vera Institute (information available on a number of corrections-related topics): www.vera.org
*[http://www.vera.org Vera Institute (information on a number of corrections-related topics)]
*World Prison Brief: http://www.prisonstudies.org
*[http://www.prisonstudies.org World Prison Brief]


==History==
== Meet the Parents of Prison Policies: Penitentiaries and Plantations ==
=== Jails and early prisons===
 
=== Indiscriminate warehousing: jails and early prisons===
In earlier times, prisons were not yet what we refer to under that name today. That is as true for medieval prisons of the 13th and 14th century (Geltner 2008) as for those in the earlier modern period. Geltner's Research led him to the following premises regarding premodern prisons:
In earlier times, prisons were not yet what we refer to under that name today. That is as true for medieval prisons of the 13th and 14th century (Geltner 2008) as for those in the earlier modern period. Geltner's Research led him to the following premises regarding premodern prisons:
#Punitive incarceration’ was well known to ‘medieval law and jurists’, despite conflicting with contemporary attitudes.
#Punitive incarceration’ was well known to ‘medieval law and jurists’, despite conflicting with contemporary attitudes.
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In 1776, the same year that America declared its independence from Britain, Philadelphia's jailhouse in the [[Walnut Street]] received its first inmates, because conditions in the old High Street Jail had become untenable. The building was neat from the outside, but less attractive inside, and at first nothing indicated that it should soon serve as a turning point in the history of punishment.
In 1776, the same year that America declared its independence from Britain, Philadelphia's jailhouse in the [[Walnut Street]] received its first inmates, because conditions in the old High Street Jail had become untenable. The building was neat from the outside, but less attractive inside, and at first nothing indicated that it should soon serve as a turning point in the history of punishment.


===Penitentiaries ===
=== Penitentiaries: the Solitary System  ===
 
This turning point was the construction of an additional building in the very yard of the U-shaped Jail, a small house called the "penitentiary house" by those who approved its construction in 1790 at the initiative of the ''Philadelphia Society for the Alleviation of the Miseries of Public Prisons.''
This turning point was the construction of an additional building in the very yard of the U-shaped Jail, a small house called the "penitentiary house" by those who approved its construction in 1790 at the initiative of the ''Philadelphia Society for the Alleviation of the Miseries of Public Prisons.''


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[[Datei:Images-3.jpeg|500px|left| Eastern State Penitentiary from above]]
[[Datei:Images-3.jpeg|500px|left| Eastern State Penitentiary from above]]


In 1790, Walnut Street Jail in Philadelphia (built in 1773, but expanded later under a state act) was built by the Quakers and was the first institution in the United States designed to punish and rehabilitate criminals. It is considered the birthplace of the modern prison system. Newgate Prison in New York City followed shortly after, in 1797, and was joined 19 years later by the larger Auburn Prison, built in western New York state. All three were perhaps naive experiments in the very new concept of modern penology. They all began as, essentially, warehouses of torture. The gallows and stocks were moved inside, but little else changed. Those who survived generally came out as better-trained thieves and killers.
In 1790, Walnut Street Jail in Philadelphia (built in 1773, but expanded later under a state act) was built by the Quakers and was the first institution in the United States designed to punish and rehabilitate criminals. It is considered the birthplace of the modern prison system.
 
===The Congregate or Silent System ===
Newgate Prison in New York City followed shortly after, in 1797, and was joined 19 years later by the larger Auburn Prison in western New York state. All three were perhaps naive experiments in the very new concept of modern penology. They all began as, essentially, warehouses of torture. The gallows and stocks were moved inside, but little else changed. Those who survived generally came out as better-trained thieves and killers.


Between Philadelphia and New York, a schism in philosophies emerged: The Philadelphia system used isolation and total silence as a means to control, punish, and rehabilitate inmates; the Auburn or “congregate” system—although still requiring total silence—permitted inmates to mingle, but only while working at hard labor. At Walnut Street, each cell block had 16 one-man cells. In the wing known as the “Penitentiary House,” inmates spent all day every day in their cells. Felons would serve their entire sentences in isolation, not just as punishment, but as an opportunity to seek forgiveness from God. It was a revolutionary idea—no penal method had ever before considered that criminals might be reformed. In 1829, Quakers and Anglicans expanded on the idea born at Walnut Street, constructing a prison called Eastern State Penitentiary, which was made up entirely of solitary cells along corridors that radiated out from a central guard area.  
Between Philadelphia and New York, a schism in philosophies emerged: The Philadelphia system used isolation and total silence as a means to control, punish, and rehabilitate inmates; the Auburn or “congregate” system—although still requiring total silence—permitted inmates to mingle, but only while working at hard labor. At Walnut Street, each cell block had 16 one-man cells. In the wing known as the “Penitentiary House,” inmates spent all day every day in their cells. Felons would serve their entire sentences in isolation, not just as punishment, but as an opportunity to seek forgiveness from God. It was a revolutionary idea—no penal method had ever before considered that criminals might be reformed. In 1829, Quakers and Anglicans expanded on the idea born at Walnut Street, constructing a prison called Eastern State Penitentiary, which was made up entirely of solitary cells along corridors that radiated out from a central guard area.  
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humiliation, and systemic hopelessness. Instead, it drove many men mad.
humiliation, and systemic hopelessness. Instead, it drove many men mad.


=== Auburn Prison ===
=== Sing Sing: sadistic security ===
The Auburn system, conversely, gave birth to America’s first
The Auburn system, conversely, gave birth to America’s first
maximum-security prison, known as Sing Sing. Built on the Hudson River
maximum-security prison, known as Sing Sing (30 miles north of New York City). It differed from Walnut Street,
30 miles north of New York City, it spawned the phrase “sent up the
Eastern State, and Auburn, in that inmates were permitted to speak to one another. But in many ways it was the most brutal prison ever built.
river,” meaning doomed. Although far different from Walnut Street,
Various means of torture—being strung upside down with arms and legs trussed, or fitted with a bowl at the neck and having it gradually filled with dripping water from a tank above until the mouth and nose were submerged—replaced isolation and silence.
Eastern State, and Auburn, in that inmates were permitted to speak to
one another, in many ways it was the most brutal prison ever built.
Various means of torture—being strung upside down with arms and legs
trussed, or fitted with a bowl at the neck and having it gradually
filled with dripping water from a tank above until the mouth and nose
were submerged—replaced isolation and silence.


*[http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/review/14 Nikolaus Wachsmann in his Review of The Oxford History of the Prisons]: "Administrators believed that the mere denial of freedom was not punishment enough and thought up various ways of intensifying the pains of imprisonment. Their industriousness made the hand crank and the treadwheel common features in prisons of the second half of the 19th century. The latter was an especially cruel device, constructed of a series of steps on a huge wheel which was to be turned around by the prisoner's climbing motion. Not only was the work physically exhausting, but it was also mentally gruelling for the prisoners as it produced absolutely nothing. The only justification of this, in McConville's words "scarcely veiled torture" (p.147), was to punish the prisoners. A medical and scientific committee was set up in the 1860s to determine the amount of labour that could be expected from the prisoners, and after rational deliberation the experts concluded that prisoners sentenced to hard labour were to ascend 8,640 feet per day."
*[http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/review/14 Nikolaus Wachsmann in his Review of The Oxford History of the Prisons]: "Administrators believed that the mere denial of freedom was not punishment enough and thought up various ways of intensifying the pains of imprisonment. Their industriousness made the hand crank and the treadwheel common features in prisons of the second half of the 19th century. The latter was an especially cruel device, constructed of a series of steps on a huge wheel which was to be turned around by the prisoner's climbing motion. Not only was the work physically exhausting, but it was also mentally gruelling for the prisoners as it produced absolutely nothing. The only justification of this, in McConville's words "scarcely veiled torture" (p.147), was to punish the prisoners. A medical and scientific committee was set up in the 1860s to determine the amount of labour that could be expected from the prisoners, and after rational deliberation the experts concluded that prisoners sentenced to hard labour were to ascend 8,640 feet per day."


Sing Sing also held the distinction of being home to America’s first electric chair.


Sing Sing also held the
[[Datei:Electric chair auburn.jpg|500px|right| Electric Chair]]
distinction of being home to America’s first electric chair.


[[Datei:Electric chair auburn.jpg|500px|right| Electric Chair Auburn]]
Europe’s eyes were on the curious competing theories at Sing Sing and Eastern State. A celebrity at the time, Charles Dickens visited Eastern State to have a look for himself at this radical new social
 
invention. Rather than impressed, he was shocked at the state of the sensory-deprived, ashen inmates with wild eyes he observed. He wrote that they were “dead to everything but torturing anxieties and horrible despair…The first man…answered…with a strange kind of pause…fell into a strange stare as if he had forgotten something…” Of another prisoner, Dickens wrote, “Why does he stare at his hands and pick the flesh open…and raise his eyes for an instant…to those bare walls?”
 
Europe’s eyes were on the curious competing theories at Sing Sing
and Eastern State. A celebrity at the time, Charles Dickens visited
Eastern State to have a look for himself at this radical new social
invention. Rather than impressed, he was shocked at the state of the
sensory-deprived, ashen inmates with wild eyes he observed. He wrote
that they were “dead to everything but torturing anxieties and horrible
despair…The first man…answered…with a strange kind of
pause…fell into a strange stare as if he had forgotten something…”
Of another prisoner, Dickens wrote, “Why does he stare at his hands and
pick the flesh open…and raise his eyes for an instant…to those bare
walls?”


“The system here, is rigid, strict and hopeless solitary
“The system here, is rigid, strict and hopeless solitary
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it.
it.


=== The Solitary Renaissance ===
== Ever more humane? Or have we come back full circle (and twice)? ==
Criminologists tended to see a linear progress in the policies of imprisonment: from indiscriminate warehousing of the 18th century to early 19th century experiments with solitary and silent systems designed to redeem the criminal sinners, going on towards the ideal and practice of social rehabilitation and re-integration of prisoners in correctional institutions ...
 
Today it is time to face the truth, and that gives us a different picture altogether. It seems that the pendulum has swung back. For one thing, solitary confinement has experienced a comeback that nobody would have expected only five decades ago. In some respects we are back at the days of Charles Dickens. What he had experienced in the 1840s any visitor of a communication management unit (CMU) or a supermax prison could easily witness again - if he were allowed into any of the highly secretive institutions.
 
===Back to the Start I: The Solitary Renaissance ===
But in the past 25 years, the penal pendulum has swung back toward
But in the past 25 years, the penal pendulum has swung back toward
the practices—absent the theories—that governed the “Philadelphia
the practices—absent the theories—that governed the “Philadelphia
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Another recent development is the (secretive) establishment of so-called Communication Management Units (CMU) within larger prison facilities. CMUs are a type of self-contained group within a federal prison in the USA that severely restricts, manages and monitors all outside communication (telephone, mail, visitation) of inmates in the unit - have existed since 2006 in the U.S.A.. - Civil liberty and human rights groups immediately questioned the constitutionality and stated that the provisions were so broad that they could be applied to non-terrorists, witnesses and detainees. The bureau appeared to abandon the program, but on December 11, 2006, a Communication Management Unit (CMU) was quietly implemented at Indiana's Federal Correctional Complex, Terre Haute. "From April to June 2010, the Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) opened up a period for public comment around the establishment of two Communications Management Units” with several civil rights groups and advocates “coming together to urge the federal Bureau of Prisons to close the experimental prison units.” It is unclear who authorized the program; it was either the Justice Department Office of Legal Counsel, FBOP Director Harley Lappin or Alberto Gonzales, United States Attorney General. It is mainly thanks to investigative journalist Will Potter that part of the public has become aware of these institutions.
Another recent development is the (secretive) establishment of so-called Communication Management Units (CMU) within larger prison facilities. CMUs are a type of self-contained group within a federal prison in the USA that severely restricts, manages and monitors all outside communication (telephone, mail, visitation) of inmates in the unit - have existed since 2006 in the U.S.A.. - Civil liberty and human rights groups immediately questioned the constitutionality and stated that the provisions were so broad that they could be applied to non-terrorists, witnesses and detainees. The bureau appeared to abandon the program, but on December 11, 2006, a Communication Management Unit (CMU) was quietly implemented at Indiana's Federal Correctional Complex, Terre Haute. "From April to June 2010, the Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) opened up a period for public comment around the establishment of two Communications Management Units” with several civil rights groups and advocates “coming together to urge the federal Bureau of Prisons to close the experimental prison units.” It is unclear who authorized the program; it was either the Justice Department Office of Legal Counsel, FBOP Director Harley Lappin or Alberto Gonzales, United States Attorney General. It is mainly thanks to investigative journalist Will Potter that part of the public has become aware of these institutions.


=== Between Resort and Supermax: Varieties of Run-Down Prisons ===
=== Back to the Start II: The Return of Indiscriminate Warehousing (and worse) ===


Supermax and torture sites are not the whole picture. There are also "normal prisons", minimum security prisons, halfway houses, and even prisons "where inmates are treated as people", sometimes referred to as resort prisons.
Supermax and torture sites are not the whole picture. There are also "normal prisons", minimum security prisons, halfway houses, and even prisons "where inmates are treated as people", sometimes referred to as resort prisons.
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== Mass Incarceration ==
== Mass Incarceration ==
The reality of prisons today is that they operate less in the rehabilitative mode of Quaker ideals than in a retributive mode that has long been practiced and promoted in the South of the USA (and in other countries that are still carrying the burden of their slaveholder society past). In those ex-slaveholder societies, at least, prisons trace their lineage back not so much to the penitentiaries, but to slave plantations and the brutal repression exercised by white masters over non-white others. White supremacy is the underlying principle, and racial domination is the real end of it all. As Michelle Alexander says: "The system of mass incarceration works to trap African Americans in a virtual (and literal) cage." In the United States, blacks are incarcerated seven times as often as whites. As Adam Gropnik summarizes in his wonderful article on The Caging of America (2012):
:"Young black men pass quickly from a period of police harassment into a period of 'formal control' (i.e., actual imprisonment) and then are doomed for life to a system of 'invisible control'. Prevented from voting, legally discriminated against for the rest of their lives, most will cycle back through the prison system. The system, in this view, is not really broken; it is doing what it was designed to do."
Michelle Alexander: "If mass incarceration is considered as a system of social control - specifically, racial control - then the system is a fantastic success."


[[Datei:US incarceration timeline-clean.svg.png|500px|right| Timeline US incarceration]]
[[Datei:US incarceration timeline-clean.svg.png|500px|right| Timeline US incarceration]]
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=== Countries with high incarceration rates ===
=== Countries with high incarceration rates ===
#[[Seychelles]] 799. Until 2016, the Seychelles were the world's number one incarcerating nation with a peak at 799 per 100,000 inhabitants. Only that they never did have as many inhabitants. The Seychelles were used as a depository for Somalian pirates, but most imprisonment - experts spoke of 70% - had to do with drug-related offenses. A kind of mass amnesty that set 150 drug offenders free let the rate drop well below the 500 mark, but since the tough drug laws of the country have simultaneously been further stiffened, things might soon return to the old normal.
#[[Seychelles]] 799. Until 2016, the Seychelles were the world's number one incarcerating nation with a peak at 799 per 100,000 inhabitants. Only that they never did have as many inhabitants. The Seychelles were used as a depository for Somalian pirates, but most imprisonment - experts spoke of 70% - had to do with drug-related offenses. A kind of mass amnesty that set 150 drug offenders free let the rate drop well below the 500 mark, but since the tough drug laws of the country have simultaneously been further stiffened, things might soon return to the old normal.
#United States of America 693 - [http://reason.com/blog/2016/12/30/incarceration-and-crime-rates-fall-in-ta  The U.S. incarceration rate fell from 690 to 670 per 100,000 people, which is still higher than that of any country except Seychelles. Drug offenders account for half of federal prisoners and 16 percent of state prisoners. A decrease in the federal prison population was largely due to shorter drug sentences]
#United States of America 693 - [http://reason.com/blog/2016/12/30/incarceration-and-crime-rates-fall-in-ta  The U.S. incarceration rate fell from 690 to 670 per 100,000 people, which is still higher than that of any country (except Seychelles, one had to add for accuracy until recently)]. Drug offenders account for half of federal prisoners and 16 percent of state prisoners. A decrease in the federal prison population was largely due to shorter drug sentences]
#[[St. Kitts and Nevis]] 607 - [http://issat.dcaf.ch/Learn/Resource-Library/Country-Profiles/Saint-Kitts-and-Nevis-Country-Profile The islands serve as a transhipment point in the transnational drug trade]
#[[St. Kitts and Nevis]] 607 - [http://issat.dcaf.ch/Learn/Resource-Library/Country-Profiles/Saint-Kitts-and-Nevis-Country-Profile The islands serve as a transhipment point in the transnational drug trade]
#Turkmenistan 583 - High rate due to ruthless punishment of any alternative political or religious expression. Presumably, prisons also hold many people who forcibly disappeared. Torture to extract “confessions” and incriminate others is common in spite of recent anti-torture legislation. Sources describe the use of dogs, batons, and subsequent loss of consciousness, damage to the kidneys, and the inability to walk. So-called kartsers or cylindrical dark solitary confinement cells can be the location of people before or after secret trials, and family members often do not receive information whatsoever.
#Turkmenistan 583 - High rate due to ruthless punishment of any alternative political or religious expression. Presumably, prisons also hold many people who forcibly disappeared. Torture to extract “confessions” and incriminate others is common in spite of recent anti-torture legislation. Sources describe the use of dogs, batons, and subsequent loss of consciousness, damage to the kidneys, and the inability to walk. So-called kartsers or cylindrical dark solitary confinement cells can be the location of people before or after secret trials, and family members often do not receive information whatsoever.
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== Violence ==
== Violence ==
#Violence among prisoners: inmates vs. inmates. That can be individual, but also collective. Prison gangs engage in "war making," or monopolizing on force and occupying the power vacuum of state authority. They eliminate rivals within their territories, and in doing so they carry out "state making." Gangs offer protection to their members, affiliates, and clients. Example: The Primeiro Comando da Capital (or the PCC) is a Brazilian prison gang based in São Paulo. The gang rose in 1993 at a soccer game at Taubate Penitentiary to fight for prisoners' rights in the aftermath of the 1992 Carandiru Massacre. The gang orchestrated rebellions in 29 São Paulo state prisons simultaneously in 2001, and since then it has caught the attention of the public for ensuing waves of violence. The Brazilian police and media estimate that at least 6,000 members pay monthly dues and are thus a base part of the organization. According to São Paulo Department of Investigation of Organized Crime, more than 140,000 prisoners are under their control in São Paulo. The gang does not allow mugging, rape, extortion, or the use of the PCC to resolve personal conflicts. It maintains a strict hierarchy, led by 50 year old (2018) Marcos Willians Herbas Camacho (Marcola), who presently serves a 234 year prison sentence at Presidente Venceslau, S.P. - All members inside and outside are required to pay taxes. Members can be soldiers, towers (gang leaders in particular prisons), or pilots (who specialize in communications). -- According to political scientist Benjamin Lessing crackdowns and harsher carceral sentences often just increase prison gangs' control of outside actors and lessen state power: "the harsher, longer, and more likely a prison sentence, the more incentives outside affiliates have to stay on good terms with imprisoned leaders, and hence the greater the prison gangs' coercive power over those who anticipate prison." - At the turn of 2016/17, just days after prison clashes between rival gangs killed 56, it was reported that at least 33 inmates had were killed in northern Roraima state.
#Competitive violence: inmates vs. inmates and gangs vs. gangs. That can be individual, but also collective. Prison gangs engage in "war making," or monopolizing on force and occupying the power vacuum of state authority. They eliminate rivals within their territories, and in doing so they carry out "state making." Gangs offer protection to their members, affiliates, and clients. Example: The Primeiro Comando da Capital (or the PCC) is a Brazilian prison gang based in São Paulo. The gang rose in 1993 at a soccer game at Taubate Penitentiary to fight for prisoners' rights in the aftermath of the 1992 Carandiru Massacre. The PCC orchestrated rebellions in 29 São Paulo state prisons simultaneously in 2001, and since then it has caught the attention of the public for ensuing waves of violence. The Brazilian police and media estimate that at least 6,000 members pay monthly dues and are thus a base part of the organization. According to São Paulo Department of Investigation of Organized Crime, more than 140,000 prisoners are under their control in São Paulo. The statutes of the PCC do not allow mugging, rape, extortion, or the use of the PCC to resolve personal conflicts. It maintains a strict hierarchy, led by 50 year old (2018) Marcos Willians Herbas Camacho (Marcola), who presently serves a 234 year prison sentence at Presidente Venceslau, S.P. - All members inside and outside are required to pay taxes. Members can be soldiers, towers (gang leaders in particular prisons), or pilots (who specialize in communications). -- According to political scientist Benjamin Lessing crackdowns and harsher carceral sentences often just increase prison gangs' control of outside actors and lessen state power: "the harsher, longer, and more likely a prison sentence, the more incentives outside affiliates have to stay on good terms with imprisoned leaders, and hence the greater the prison gangs' coercive power over those who anticipate prison." - At the turn of 2016/17, just days after prison clashes between rival gangs killed 56, it was reported that at least 33 inmates had were killed in northern Roraima state.
#Repressive violence: officials vs. inmates. Example: Friday, 2 October 1992, military police stormed Carandiru Penitentiary in São Paulo, Brazil, following a prison riot after a soccer game. By the end of the day, 111 prisoners were dead; and 37 more were injured. Gunshot wounds were mainly found in the face, head, throat and chest. Hands among the dead were found in front of the face or behind the head suggesting defensive positions. Police were also reported killing witnesses, wounded prisoners, and even those forced to remove bodies. No policeman was injured.  Evidence suggests that many prisoners were, defenceless and intentionally extrajudicially executed.
#Repressive violence: officials vs. inmates. Example: Friday, 2 October 1992, military police stormed Carandiru Penitentiary in São Paulo, Brazil, following a prison riot after a soccer game. By the end of the day, 111 prisoners were dead; and 37 more were injured. Gunshot wounds were mainly found in the face, head, throat and chest. Hands among the dead were found in front of the face or behind the head suggesting defensive positions. Police were also reported killing witnesses, wounded prisoners, and even those forced to remove bodies. No policeman was injured.  Evidence suggests that many prisoners were, defenceless and intentionally extrajudicially executed.
#Revolting violence: inmates vs. officials. Heather Ann Thompson (2016) Blood in the Water. The Attica Prison Uprising of 1971 and Its Legacy. - As an indirect result of the Attica uprising, the New York State Department of Corrections 1) began a grievance procedure, in which inmates could grieve (object to) actions by a staff member that violated stated policy, 2) started at each prison a program under which the warden and other senior management meet on a monthly basis with elected representatives of the inmates, and 3) began allowing packages to inmates to be received year-round.
#Revolting violence: inmates vs. officials. Heather Ann Thompson (2016) Blood in the Water. The Attica Prison Uprising of 1971 and Its Legacy. - As an indirect result of the Attica uprising, the New York State Department of Corrections 1) began a grievance procedure, in which inmates could grieve (object to) actions by a staff member that violated stated policy, 2) started at each prison a program under which the warden and other senior management meet on a monthly basis with elected representatives of the inmates, and 3) began allowing packages to inmates to be received year-round. - Revolting violence can have a containment effect on repressive violence as in the case of the Brazilian PCC. See Graham Denyer-Willis (2015) The Killing Consensus: Police, Organized Crime, and the Regulation of Life and Death in Urban Brazil. Durham: Duke University Press.
 
Prison '''massacres''' are a recurrent phenomenon, says [http://carceraria.org.br/noticias/gianfranco-graziola-massacres-e-chacinas-nas-prisoes-sao-ciclicos Gianfranco Graziola of the Pastoral Carcerária (Brasil)]
 
To prevent '''torture''' in prison the best way would be to prevent prison.
 
== Beyond Imprisonment ==
===The Scandinavian World ===
 
Here, the carceral continuum in the minimum security state will dispense of the prison. As Gilles Deleuze said in his Postscript on the Control Society:
 
:"We are in a generalized crisis in relation to all the environments of enclosure–prison, hospital, factory, school, family. The family is an “interior,” in crisis like all other interiors–scholarly, professional, etc. The administrations in charge never cease announcing supposedly necessary reforms: to reform schools, to reform industries, hospitals, the armed forces, prisons. But '''everyone knows that these institutions are finished''', whatever the length of their expiration periods. It’s only a matter of administering their last rites and of keeping people employed until the installation of the new forces knocking at the door. These are the societies of control, which are in the process of replacing disciplinary societies. “Control” is the name Burroughs proposes as a term for the new monster, one that Foucault recognizes as our immediate future. Paul Virilio also is continually analyzing the ultrarapid forms of free-floating control that replaced the old disciplines operating in the time frame of a closed system. There is no need to invoke the extraordinary pharmaceutical productions, the molecular engineering, the genetic manipulations, although these are slated to enter the new process. There is no need to ask which is the toughest regime, for it’s within each of them that liberating and enslaving forces confront one another. For example, in the crisis of the hospital as environment of enclosure, neighborhood clinics, hospices, and day care could at first express new freedom, but they could participate as well in mechanisms of control that are equal to the harshest of confinements. There is no need to fear or hope, but only to look for new weapons."
 
Everyday surveillance, pre-penal control and sanctions (Gefährder, sub-criminal anti-social behaviour), degrees of non-custodial and custodial sanctions (including pre-trial detention), post-custodial surveillance. - Net-widening, non-custodial alternatives to imprisonment. Restorative Justice.
 
===The World of the New Helots===
:"In the nineteenth century the Industrial Revolution created a huge new class of urben proletariats, and socialism spread because no other creed managed to answer the unprecedented needs, hopes and fears of this new working class. Liberalism eventually defeated socialism only by adopting the best parts of the socialist programme. In the twenty-first century we might witness the creation of a massive new unworking class: people devoid of any economic, political or even artistic value, who contribute nothing to the prosperity power and glory of society. This 'useless class' will not be merely unemployed - it will be unemployable" (Harari 2016: Homo Deus, 379).
 
*Legal and extralegal control: run-down prisons, camps, disease
*Return to the Times of John Howard: Wheelbarrow Men, Torture, Overcrowding, Disease
*Competing and shared sovereignty (gangs and the state): parallel justice
 
=== Instead of Prisons ===
==== Reduction ====
*Criminal Justice Reinvestment
*Restorative Justice
*Community Work
*Alternative Sentences
 
====Abolition====
'''1. Overcoming the cell prison - and punitive deprivation of liberty.'''
*[[Voices of Abolition]]
 
*International Conference on Penal Abolition (IOPA)
*[http://noprison.eu No Prison (Europe)]
 
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_Baker Catherine Baker (*1947)] argues for the complete abolition of the prison system in her booklet [http://tahin-party.org/textes/baker.pdf Pourquoi faudrait-il punir?" (2005)]
 
*[http://abolition.prisons.free.fr/ Catherine Baker's site: Mouvement abolitionniste des prisons et des peines]
 
*[http://sami-kilic.blogspot.de/2009_09_01_archive.html Kilic, Sami (2009) République des ergastules]
 
:"J'ai toujours pensé que l'enfermement était absurde; ma claustrophobie y est sans doute pour quelque chose. Mais par principe aussi : nécessaire sans doute mais inopérant. Une oeuvre de destruction. L'abolition de tous les repères. Quoi qu'un homme ait pu faire, il mérite mieux. Punition oui, en prison non. Cours de droit pénal classique : la peine sert à punir et à réinsérer (tout cela sur fond de disputes théoriques). Cette formule se vérifie rarement, malheureusement. Et les abolitionnistes sont de plus en plus nombreux; ils triompheront un jour. Alors, il faudra approfondir les peines alternatives à la privation de liberté; comme la médiation et la méditation (n'est-ce pas le rôle des nombreuses commissions Vérité et réconciliation ? cf. Catherine BAKER, Pourquoi faudrait-il punir ? Sur l’abolition du système pénal, pp. 151-173). Le paradigme de l'écoute : juste s'arrêter un instant pour tendre l'oreille : "allez raconte-nous pourquoi tu as fait cela ?".
 
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Onfray Michel Onfray] and others published a Manifesto (in English, French, and Greek) calling [http://www.x-pressed.org/?xpd_article=france-for-the-abolition-of-every-prison-and-the-logic-of-incarceration For the Abolition of Every Prison and the Logic of Incarceration].
 
:''The philosophers Michel Onfray and Tony Ferri, the MP Noël Mamère, the ex-president of the International Prison Observatory Gabriel Mouesca, the lawyers Lucie Davy and Yannis Lantheaume and the ex-prisoner Philippe El Shennawy sign this manifesto and demand this archaic system that allows “the imprisonment of human by human to be thrown in the deepest dungeons of history”.''
 
:“Prison was built on the principles of philanthropy: during the time of their incarceration, the offenders would reflect, would improve, would be reborn. History defeated this sad nonsense. A prison can only be constructed on the foundations of absolute spiritual cruelty; otherwise imprisonment is just based on the hope that everything will go well after it ends, hence on something completely inconceivable”. When Catherine Baker (journalist of the libertarian movement, author and supporter of the abolition of prisons) was writing these words in March of 1984, in France there were 38,600 persons held in prisons. Thirty years later this number has increased to 69,000 and the average time of incarceration is more than double (from 5.5 to more than 12 months).
 
:Unable to reassure a public opinion that keeps asking for more and more security, the politics that have been implemented for half a century now, lead to the incarceration of an increasing number of people, gradually transforming the welfare State to a punishing State. The construction plans for new prisons succeed one another with a frantic speed, while their instigators keep guaranteeing the end of the chronic problem of the overcrowding of prisons and the ‘humanisation’ of the conditions of detention. In reality though, as the number of cells increases, the number of the prisoners increases accordingly. Humanisation translates into a cold, sterilised environment, intense colours and electronic surveillance systems, in replacement of the old filthiness and the unhealthy dormitories. Yet, a ‘golden’ cage is still a cage; and the prisoner –or, as they are called nowadays ‘the user of public penitentiary services– remains a hamster in a cage. There is nothing, or almost nothing that the prisoner can do for the time to pass. They are occasionally offered a repetitive and underpaid job. Their correspondence? All but confidential. Their visits? Restricted, controlled and surveyed. In case of inappropriate behaviour they will be placed in the disciplinary area, a proper dungeon where the prisoner is lowered to the level of an animal. For the most indisciplined or those strictly surveyed? There is isolation, the white cell that destroys you slowly and painfully.
 
:The list is infinite. “There is no need to repeat the obvious: incarceration makes you insane, ill, harsh and greedy”, Catherine Baker used to write many years ago. It is something exceptionally paradoxical as “no one desires to live in a world where some people take the risk to imprison some others, constituting them even more threatening than what they actually are”.
 
:The basic punishment of the prisoner is the dead time that passes relentlessly. It is the sense of the loss of time that nibbles the body and the spirit. All the rest –the repletion of the cells, the isolation and the discipline– are nothing but different aspects of the issues that have as a result the slow death of those that society has rejected. The prisoners kill their time but it is actually the time that kills them. They grow old without having really lived and when they exit the prison we tend to say that they served their time. But time has corroded them; has shattered them. More than any other person, the prisoner is the carcass of time.
 
:When the time of their release comes, they need to learn again how to live: to regain their autonomy while for months or years they were in a state of absolute dependence, even for the most simple of movement, having lost any kind of free will and effect of their everyday lives. They have to learn again the ‘outside’ manners, while they have spent so much time in the state of the special laws of the prison system. They have to learn again how to love and touch, while for years they were deprived of any physical contact. They have to learn again how to open doors, as for years they would only see them shutting in front of them. Finally, they have to learn again how to be complete as persons, while this could be something that they never learned in the first place.
 
:From the international fora for human rights till the organisations dealing with prisons, through the International Prison Observatory, the General Auditor of the spaces depriving freedom or the few MPs that exercise their right to visit the prisons, the voices that denounce the conditions in French prisons increase. Nicolas Sarkozy considered them ‘a shame for Democracy’. Christine Taubira describes them as ‘numerous but empty of meaning’. And yet after all these statements we get to hear that they have to be reformed, that it is necessary and urgent to re-examine prisons, their role and target in the penal system, or event to reorganise them. “Literally speaking, reform is not unthinkable, but impossible” claims Catherine Baker: “The less the prison punishes, the less it meets its mission. Blaming the prisons for excessive punishment is like blaming a hospital for excessive curing”.
 
:The prison is the prime condition that we should not attempt to reform, but only to abolish. Firstly, because the penitentiary institution is such, that any progress comes with the price of the equivalent regression. Thus, the institutionalisation of ‘special conditions’ of detention would allow some prisoners, but not all of them, to detour the disciplinary process. The abolition of the prison is a choice because the prison bears in it the relentless logic of exclusion, resulting in the marginalisation and impoverishment of those who were incarcerated due to their precarious place in society or their family environment. The reform of the prison is impossible, as its inherent violence causes to those that experience it hatred and hostility towards anyone else and towards the whole of society; feelings that any social body should avoid to reproduce. Its abolition is imperative because, according to all the studies, the prison has completely failed to prevent relapse and thus causes more harm than good to society.
 
:But it should also be abolished because it constitutes a symbol. As a parasitic outgrowth of our societies, it seems to be the concentrated form of all evil. Isolation, solitude and separation are forced there at their maximum. Out there, the public space, urbanisation, architecture and transportation acquire more and more penitential features. Even in the outside world, work and the commercialised social relations reproduce incarceration, neurosis and desperation.
 
:France was the first European country to abolish torture, besides the prudent voices of the time, supporting that without it French justice would be disarmed and the good prisoners would be left in the hands of criminals. Additionally, France was one of the first countries in the world to abolish slavery, this crime against humanity that has been committed for the past 200 years. In 1981, the abolition of the death penalty (in France) reflected a social need. Even though France was one of the first Western European countries to outlaw this absolute negation of the value of human life, the result of this action was paradoxical. Without managing to solve any ethical and political problem arising in the context of human rights, the abolition of the death penalty did not end the logic of extermination that still exists in our country. Those that we nowadays call ‘convicts serving long sentences’ are nothing less than condemned to a slow death; a social death. Having been adopted in order to respond to a strong social movement where sentimentalism was fighting with hypocrisy, the abolition of the capital punishment did not mark that much the symbolic rise of the Left (with the rise of Francois Mitterrand at the presidency of the country) but the confirmation of the limits in its thinking. In any case, the end of the death penalty ended neither death (since after the last execution of a prisoner in 1977 more than 3,000 convicts have committed suicide) nor the punishments in the prisons .


== Imprisonment and Beyond ==
:We argue that nowadays, holding a person incarcerated does not mean that you punish them: it means that you permit the perpetuation of an archaic system that is now obsolete and incompatible with postmodern societies. We demand this abhorrent practice that allows the isolation and confinement of human by human, to be thrown in the deepest dungeons of history. It is our belief that it will not be long before imprisonment is considered by humans as the most irrefutable evidence of the brutality, the moral and emotional decline that characterised humanity till the beginning of the 21st century. We deny that Justice has the right, in the name of the law, to condemn people in imprisonment.
#Rich countries: the carceral continuum in the minimum security state. Everyday surveillance, pre-penal control and sanctions (Gefährder, sub-criminal anti-social behaviour), degrees of non-custodial and custodial sanctions (including pre-trial detention), post-custodial surveillance. - Net-widening, non-custodial alternatives to imprisonment. Restorative Justice.
#Poor countries: legal and extralegal control, institutions, shared sovereignty (gangs and the state)


Harari: 379  "In the nineteenth century the Industrial Revolution created a huge new class of urben proletariats, and socialism spread because no other creed managed to answer the unprecedented needs, hopes and fears of this new working class. Liberalism eventually defeated socialism only by adopting the best parts of the socialist programme. In the twenty-first century we might witness the creation of a massive new unworking class: people devoid of any economic, political or even artistic value, who contribute nothing to the prosperity power and glory of society. This 'useless class' will not be merely unemployed - it will be unemployable.
:Alain Cangina, president of the association Renaître (consisting of ex-prisoners it intervenes and highlights cases of mistreatment in prisons); Audrey Chenu, ex-prisoner, teacher and author of the autobiographic book Girlfight; Lucie Davy, lawyer; Philippe El Shennawy, ex-prisoner; Tony Ferri, philosopher; Samuel Gautier, cinematographer; Yannis Lantheaume, lawyer; Jacques Lesage de La Haye, writer and psychologist; The unknown inmate, prisoner in a French prison and [http://www.rue89lyon.fr/category/blogs/taulard-inconnu/ blogger] under the same name; Philippe Bouvet, professor of history/geography and father of a detained person; Thierry Lodé, biologist, Noël Mamère, independent MP of the party Europe, Ecology and Green (European Green Party??), Gabriel Mouesca, historic member of the Basque separatist group Iparretarrak and ex-president of the International Prison Observatory (OIP); Yann Moulier-Boutang, economist and essay writer; Michel Onfray, philosopher; Antoine Pâris, journalist.


*[http://blogs.mediapart.fr/edition/les-invites-de-mediapart/article/040614/abolir-la-prison-ses-mecanismes-et-ses-logiques Abolir la prison, ses mécanismes et ses logiques, in: mediapart 04.06.2014]


== Voices of Abolition ==
*Ricardo Genelhú & Sebastian Scheerer (2017) Manifesto para abolir as prisões: trata sobre a situação presente do sistema prisional no Brasil, o poder prisional e quem são seus atores, a quem e pra quem ele serve e por que ele foi inventado. Discute-se sobre o encarceramento em massa, a (não) ressocialização dos encarcerados, a teoria da less eligibility e o regime disciplinar diferenciado. E por último, faz-se um panorama sobre o futuro do sistema prisional.
#Overcoming the cell prison - and punitive deprivation of liberty altogether. [[Voices of Abolition]]
#Overcoming punishment
#Return to the Times of John Howard: Wheelbarrow Men, Torture, Death, Camps, Overcrowding, Disease


'''2. Overcoming punishment'''
Restorative Justice as an alternative not only to prison, but also to punishment as such.


== Bibliography ==
== Bibliography ==
*Alexander, Michelle (2012), The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness, New York: The New Press.
*Alexander, Michelle (2012), The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness, New York: The New Press.
*Ayers, Edward L. (1984), Vengeance and Justice: Crime and Punishment in the 19th-Century American South, New York: Oxford University Press.
*Ayers, Edward L. (1984), Vengeance and Justice: Crime and Punishment in the 19th-Century American South, New York: Oxford University Press.
*[http://www.motherjones.com/politics/2009/03/solitary-confinement-brief-natural-history Biggs, Brooke S. (2009) Solitary Confinement: A Brief Natural History, in: Mother Jones]
*Blackmon, Douglas A. (2008), Slavery by Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II, New York.
*Blackmon, Douglas A. (2008), Slavery by Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II, New York.
*Christianson, Scott (1998), With Liberty for Some: 500 Years of Imprisonment in America, Boston: Northeastern University Press.
*Christianson, Scott (1998), With Liberty for Some: 500 Years of Imprisonment in America, Boston: Northeastern University Press.
*Clemmer, Donald (1940), The Prison Community. Boston: The Christopher Publishing House.
*Clemmer, Donald (1940), The Prison Community. Boston: The Christopher Publishing House.
*[https://thefunambulist.net/history/deleuze-foucault-and-the-society-of-control Deleuze, Gilles (1990) Postscript on Societies of Control, in: Funambulist]
*Denyer-Willis, Graham (2015) The Killing Consensus: Police, Organized Crime, and the Regulation of Life and Death in Urban Brazil. Durham: Duke University Press.
*Foucault, Michel (1995) Discipline & Punish: The Birth of the Prison. NY: Vintage Books.
*Foucault, Michel (1995) Discipline & Punish: The Birth of the Prison. NY: Vintage Books.
*Geltner, Guy (2008) The Medieval Prison: A Social History. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press.
*Geltner, Guy (2008) The Medieval Prison: A Social History. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press.
*Genelhú, Ricardo & Sebastian Scheerer (2017) Manifesto para abolir as prisões (2017)
*Gottschalk, Marie (2006), The Prison and the Gallows: The Politics of Mass Incarceration in America, Cambridge.
*Gottschalk, Marie (2006), The Prison and the Gallows: The Politics of Mass Incarceration in America, Cambridge.
*Harari, Yuval N. (2016) Homo Deus. A Brief History of Tomorrow. London: Vintage.
*Harari, Yuval N. (2016) Homo Deus. A Brief History of Tomorrow. London: Vintage.
Zeile 315: Zeile 377:
*Howard, John (1777), The State of the Prisons in England and Wales: With Preliminary Observations, and an Account of Some Foreign Prisons. Warrington: Cadell, Conant.
*Howard, John (1777), The State of the Prisons in England and Wales: With Preliminary Observations, and an Account of Some Foreign Prisons. Warrington: Cadell, Conant.
*Ignatieff, Michael (1978), A Just Measure of Pain: The Penitentiary in the Industrial Revolution, 1750–1850, New York.
*Ignatieff, Michael (1978), A Just Measure of Pain: The Penitentiary in the Industrial Revolution, 1750–1850, New York.
*Jacobs, James B. (1997), Stateville. The Penitentiary in Mass Society. With a Foreword by Morris Janowitz. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
*Jacobs, James B. (1997), Stateville. The Penitentiary in Mass Society. With a Foreword by Morris Janowitz. Chicago: U of Chicago Press.
*[http://www.prisonstudies.org/sites/default/files/resources/downloads/global_imprisonment_web2c.pdf Jacobsen, Jessica et al. (2017) PRISON. Evidence of its use and over-use from around the world.pdf]
*Lewis, Orlando F. (1922), The Development of American Prisons and Prison Customs, 1776–1845, New York: Correctional Association of New York.
*Lewis, Orlando F. (1922), The Development of American Prisons and Prison Customs, 1776–1845, New York: Correctional Association of New York.
*McLennan, Rebecca (2008), The Crisis of Imprisonment: Protest, Politics, and the Making of the American Penal State, 1776-1941, Cambridge.
*McLennan, Rebecca (2008), The Crisis of Imprisonment: Protest, Politics, and the Making of the American Penal State, 1776-1941, Cambridge.
*[https://pt.wikisource.org/wiki/Estatuto_do_PCC PCC: Estatuto]
*Rothman, David & Norval Morris, eds (1995) The Oxford History of the Prison: the Practice of Punishment in Western Society. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
*Rothman, David & Norval Morris, eds (1995) The Oxford History of the Prison: the Practice of Punishment in Western Society. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
*[https://books.google.de/books?id=SNE0XBX-V-QC&pg=PA257&hl=de&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=2#v=onepage&q&f=false Spierenburg,Pieter (2007) The Prison Experience. Disciplinary Institutions and Their Inmates in Early Modern Europe. With a Preface by Elisabeth Lissenberg, Amsterdam : Amsterdam University Press].
*[https://books.google.de/books?id=SNE0XBX-V-QC&pg=PA257&hl=de&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=2#v=onepage&q&f=false Spierenburg,Pieter (2007) The Prison Experience. Disciplinary Institutions and Their Inmates in Early Modern Europe. With a Preface by Elisabeth Lissenberg, Amsterdam : Amsterdam University Press].
*[https://www.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/43448_7.pdf Prisons. Chapter 7. The State of Prisons - Transgender and useful weblinks]
*[https://www.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/43448_7.pdf Prisons. Chapter 7. The State of Prisons - Transgender and useful weblinks]
*Sykes, Gresham M. (1958) The Society of Captives: A Study of a Maximum Security Prison . Princeton: Princeton University Press.  
*Sykes, Gresham M. (1958) The Society of Captives: A Study of a Maximum Security Prison . Princeton: Princeton University Press.  
*[https://www.unodc.org/documents/justice-and-prison-reform/17-05452_ebook.pdf UNODC 2017: Roadmap for Prison Based Rehabilitation Programs]
*Wacquant, Loïc (2009), Punishing the Poor: The Neoliberal Government of Social Insecurity''. Durham: Duke University Press
*Wacquant, Loïc (2009), Punishing the Poor: The Neoliberal Government of Social Insecurity''. Durham: Duke University Press


== Weblinks ==
== Weblinks ==
'''Mass Imprisonment'''


*[https://theplaidzebra.com/norways-prison-island-is-treats-inmates-like-theyre-at-a-resort/ Imagine you are a prisoner convicted of murder], you are sent to a prison on an island. You are not being handcuffed. There are no cameras watching you. There are no weapons. Instead of jail cells, there are decent wooden cottages. Bastøy prison—which sits on an island 80 kilometres from Oslo —offers a new perspective on how to treat criminals.
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_United_States_prison_systems History of United States prison systems]
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States Mass Imprisonment U.S.A.].
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NaPBcUUqbew Mass Imprisonment U.S.A. on YouTube]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u51_pzax4M0 Mass Imprisonment U.S.A. on YouTube 2015]
*[http://allthingscrimeblog.com/2014/09/21/light-up-or-leave-me-alone-the-electric-chair-an-infamous-and-agonizing-history/ Electric Chair History (Auburn)]
 
'''Resort Prisons: Bastøy in Norway'''


*[https://www.theguardian.com/society/2013/feb/25/norwegian-prison-inmates-treated-like-people The Norwegian Prison Where Inmates Are Treated Like People (Bastoy)]
*[https://theplaidzebra.com/norways-prison-island-is-treats-inmates-like-theyre-at-a-resort/ No handcuffs, no cameras, no weapons. But decent wooden cottages on an island 80 kilometres from Oslo — a new perspective on how to treat criminals].
*[https://www.theguardian.com/society/2013/feb/25/norwegian-prison-inmates-treated-like-people Where Inmates Are Treated Like People. The Guardian (2013)]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZCTXFM_raeA Michael Moore on the Prison Island, YouTube]


*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZCTXFM_raeA Michael Moore on the Prison Island]
'''Run-Down Prisons'''


*[http://www.motherjones.com/politics/2009/03/solitary-confinement-brief-natural-history Biggs, Brooke S. (2009) Solitary Confinement: A Brief Natural History, in: Mother Jones]
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_management_unit Communication management unit, wikipedia]
*[http://willpotter.com/CMU/ CMU TED talk Will Potter]
*[http://www.complex.com/pop-culture/2015/08/the-50-craziest-prisons-and-jails-in-the-world/black-beach Destitute-Malignant Prisons: Black Beach in Equatorial Guinea]
*[http://www.complex.com/pop-culture/2015/08/the-50-craziest-prisons-and-jails-in-the-world/black-beach Destitute-Malignant Prisons: Black Beach in Equatorial Guinea]
*[http://allthingscrimeblog.com/2014/09/21/light-up-or-leave-me-alone-the-electric-chair-an-infamous-and-agonizing-history/ Electric Chair History (Auburn)]
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_United_States_prison_systems History of United States prison systems]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1RqIP8MG8g4 Large Run-Down Prison (LRDP): Quezon City Jail on YouTube]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1RqIP8MG8g4 Large Run-Down Prison (LRDP): Quezon City Jail on YouTube]


*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States Mass Imprisonment U.S.A.].
'''Supermax-Prisons'''
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NaPBcUUqbew Mass Imprisonment U.S.A. on YouTube]
 
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u51_pzax4M0 Mass Imprisonment U.S.A. on YouTube 2015]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xuAAPsiD768 Will Potter: The secret prisons in the U.S.A.] about [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_management_unit communication management units]
*[http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-17663629 Supermax: Just how bad are they? BBC (2012)]
*[http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-17663629 Supermax: Just how bad are they? BBC (2012)]
*[http://edition.cnn.com/2015/06/25/us/dzhokhar-tsarnaev-supermax-prison/index.html Supermax: What's life like in a Supermax Prison? (CNN 2015)]
*[http://edition.cnn.com/2015/06/25/us/dzhokhar-tsarnaev-supermax-prison/index.html Supermax: What's life like in a Supermax Prison? (CNN 2015)]
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_management_unit Communication management unit, wikipedia]
*[http://willpotter.com/CMU/ CMU TED talk Will Potter]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xuAAPsiD768 Will Potter: The secret prisons in the U.S.A.] about [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_management_unit communication management units].


== See also ==
== See also ==
Zeile 351: Zeile 421:
*[[Eastern State Penitentiary]]
*[[Eastern State Penitentiary]]
*[[Walnut Street]]
*[[Walnut Street]]
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Brazil Law Enforcement in Brazil, in: en.wikipedia]
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