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George W. (Walker) Bush (* 6.7.1946) war Gouverneur von Texas (1995-2000) und 43. Präsident der USA (20. Januar 2001 - 20. Januar 2009). In seine Amtszeit fielen die Terroranschläge vom 11. September 2001, der Krieg gegen (die Taliban in) Afghanistan (Beginn: Oktober 2001), die Invasion des Irak (2003) sowie im Zusammenhang mit dem "War on Terror" auch die Folterungen von Gefangenen in Abu Ghraib (Irak) und im Gefangenenlager Guantanamo Bay auf Kuba. Das Ende seiner Amtszeit war überschattet vom Kollaps der Finanzmärkte und dem Beginn einer weltweiten Rezession.
'''Riesen-Baustelle. Betreten auf eigene Gefahr!'''




== Leben ==
'''George W. (Walker) Bush''' (* 6.7.1946, New Haven, Connecticut), Sohn von US-Präsident George H. Bush (1989-1993) und dessen Frau Barbara (geb. Pierce), war 43. Präsident der USA (20.1.2001-20.1.2009). In seiner Amtszeit war er verantwortlich für den Krieg gegen Afghanistan (2001), gegen den Irak (2003) und gegen den Terrorismus (2001 ff.) sowie die Legalisierung der Folter im Rahmen der Terrorismusbekämpfung.  
Nach dem Studium arbeitete Bush in der Ölfirma seiner Familie, heiratete Laura Welch (1977), wurde Miteigentümer des Texas Rangers Baseball Team und wurde - nach einem erfolglosen Anlauf in das Repräsentantenhaus - im Jahre 1994 zum Gouverneur von Texas gewählt.  a close and controversial election, Bush was elected president in 2000 as the Republican candidate, receiving a majority of the electoral votes, but losing the popular vote to Al Gore.
Eight months into his first term as President, the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks occurred and Bush announced a global War on Terrorism, ordered an invasion of Afghanistan that same year and an invasion of Iraq in 2003. In addition to national security issues, President Bush attempted to promote policies on the economy, health care, education, and social security reform. He signed into law massive tax cuts, the No Child Left Behind Act[3] and Medicare prescription drug benefits for seniors, and his tenure saw a national debate on immigration.[4]
Bush successfully ran for re-election against Democratic Senator John Kerry in 2004, garnering 50.7% of the popular vote to his opponent's 48.3%.[5] After his re-election, Bush received increasingly heated criticism.[6][7][8] In 2005, the Bush administration was forced to deal with the apparent failures of its handling of Hurricane Katrina. In December 2007, the United States entered the second-longest post-World War II recession,[9] and his administration took more direct control of the economy, enacting multiple economic stimulus packages. Bush was a popular president for much of his first term,[10] peaking after the September 11 terrorist attacks when he received the highest approval rating of any president in American history to date. His popularity declined sharply during his second term, when he received one of the lowest approval ratings as well as the lowest sustained approval numbers in American history.[11][12][13][14]
Contents [hide]
1 Childhood to mid-life
1.1 Education
1.2 Texas Air National Guard
2 Marriage and family
3 Early career
4 Governor of Texas
5 Presidential campaigns
5.1 2000 Presidential candidacy
5.2 2004 Presidential candidacy
6 Presidency
6.1 Domestic policy
6.2 Foreign policy
6.3 Supreme Court appointments
7 Post presidency
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Childhood to mid-life


Main article: Early life of George W. Bush
Born in New Haven, Connecticut on July 6, 1946, Bush was the first child of George H. W. Bush and Barbara Bush (born Pierce). He was raised in Midland and Houston, Texas, with his four siblings, Jeb, Neil, Marvin and Dorothy. Another younger sister, Robin, died from leukemia at the age of three in 1953.[15] Bush's grandfather, Prescott Bush, was a Senator from Connecticut. Bush's father, George H. W. Bush, served as U.S. President from 1989 to 1993.
Education
As a child, Bush was not accepted for admission by St. John's School in Houston, Texas, a prestigious private school.[16] Instead, he attended The Kinkaid School, the private school from which St. John's had broken away.[16][17]
Bush attended Phillips Academy, an all-boys private high school in Andover, Massachusetts, where he played baseball and during his senior year was the head cheerleader.[18][19] Bush attended Yale University from 1964 to 1968, receiving a Bachelor's degree in history in 1968.[20] As a college senior, Bush became a member of the secretive Skull and Bones society.[21] He characterized himself as an average student.[22]
In 1970, Bush applied to, but was not accepted into, the University of Texas School of Law.[23] Beginning in the fall of 1973, Bush attended Harvard University, where he earned an MBA.[24]
Texas Air National Guard


== Lebenslauf ==
Bush machte seinen B.A. in Geschichte (1968) an der Yale University, bewarb sich erfolglos an der Universität von Texas für das Studium der Rechtswissenschaften, studierte daraufhin (1973) Betriebswirtschaft an der Harvard Universität (MBA). Er war in der Firma seiner Familie tätig, wurde wegen Alkoholexzessen auffällig (1976 ff.), heiratete (1977) und wurde nach einem vergeblichen Anlauf ins Repräsentantenhaus Gouverneur von Texas (1995-2000) sowie im Jahre 2001 US-Präsident (bis 2009).


Lt. George W. Bush while in the Texas Air National Guard
In May 1968, Bush was commissioned into the Texas Air National Guard.[25] After training, he was assigned to duty in Houston, flying Convair F-102s out of Ellington Air Force Base.[26] Critics allege that Bush was favorably treated due to his father's political standing, citing his selection as a pilot and his irregular attendance.[27] In June 2005, the United States Department of Defense released all the records of Bush's Texas Air National Guard service, which remain in its official archives.[28]
In late 1972 and early 1973, he drilled with the Alabama Air National Guard, having moved to Memphis to work on the unsuccessful U.S. Senate campaign of Republican Winton M. Blount. In October 1973, Bush was discharged from the Texas Air National Guard and transferred to the Air Force inactive reserves. He was discharged from the Air Force Reserve on November 21, 1974, at the end of his six-year service obligation.[29]
Marriage and family


See also: Bush family




George and Laura Bush with their daughters Jenna and Barbara, 1990
In 1977, he was introduced by friends at a backyard barbecue to Laura Welch, a schoolteacher and librarian. Bush proposed to her after a three-month courtship and they were married on November 5 of that year.[30] The couple settled in Midland, Texas. Bush left his family's Episcopal Church to join his wife's United Methodist Church.[1] In 1981, Laura Bush gave birth to twin daughters, Jenna and Barbara;[30] they graduated from high school in 2000 and from the University of Texas at Austin and Yale University, respectively, in 2004.
Prior to his marriage, Bush had multiple accounts of alcohol abuse.[31] In one instance, he was arrested near his family's summer home in Kennebunkport, Maine for driving under the influence of alcohol at the age of thirty on September 4, 1976. He pleaded guilty, was fined $150 and had his Maine driver's license suspended until 1978.[32]
Bush says his wife has had a stabilizing effect on his private life,[30] and attributes to her influence his 1986 decision to give up alcohol.[33] While Governor of Texas, Bush said of his wife, "I saw an elegant beautiful woman who turned out not only to be elegant and beautiful, but very smart and willing to put up with my rough edges, and I must confess has smoothed them off over time."[30]
Early career
Main article: Professional life of George W. Bush
In 1978, Bush ran for the House of Representatives from Texas's 19th congressional district. His opponent, Kent Hance, portrayed him as being out of touch with rural Texans; Bush lost the election by 6,000 votes.[34] He returned to the oil industry, and began a series of small, independent oil exploration companies.[35] He created Arbusto Energy,[36] and later changed the name to Bush Exploration. In 1984, his company merged with the larger Spectrum 7, and Bush became chairman.[35] The company was hurt by a decline in oil prices, and as a result, it folded into Harken Energy.[35][37] Bush served on the board of directors for Harken.[35] Questions of possible insider trading involving Harken arose, but the Securities and Exchange Commission's (SEC) investigation concluded that the information Bush had at the time of his stock sale was not sufficient to constitute insider trading.[35][38]
Bush moved his family to Washington, D.C. in 1988 to work on his father's campaign for the U.S. presidency.[39][40] He worked as a campaign adviser and served as liaison to the media;[35] he assisted his father by campaigning across the country.[35] Returning to Texas after the successful campaign, he purchased a share in the Texas Rangers baseball franchise in April 1989, where he served as managing general partner for five years.[41] He actively led the team's projects and regularly attended its games, often choosing to sit in the open stands with fans.[42] The sale of Bush's shares in the Rangers in 1998 brought him over $15 million from his initial $800,000 investment.[43]
In December 1991, Bush was one of seven people named by his father to run his father's 1992 Presidential re-election campaign as "campaign advisor."[44] The prior month, Bush had been asked by his father to tell White House chief of staff John H. Sununu that he should resign.[45]
Governor of Texas
Main article: George W. Bush as Governor of Texas
Governor Bush with wife, Laura, and father, former President George H. W. Bush at the dedication of the George Bush Presidential Library, November 1997
As Bush's brother, Jeb, sought the governorship of Florida, Bush declared his candidacy for the 1994 Texas gubernatorial election. His campaign focused on four themes: welfare reform, tort reform, crime reduction, and education improvement.[35] Bush's campaign advisers were Karen Hughes, Joe Allbaugh, and Karl Rove.[46]
After easily winning the Republican primary, Bush faced popular Democratic incumbent Governor Ann Richards.[35][47] In the course of the campaign, Bush pledged to sign a bill allowing Texans to obtain permits to carry concealed weapons. Governor Richards had vetoed the bill, but Bush signed it after he became governor.[48] According to The Atlantic Monthly, the race "featured a rumor that she was a lesbian, along with a rare instance of such a tactic's making it into the public record—when a regional chairman of the Bush campaign allowed himself, perhaps inadvertently, to be quoted criticizing Richards for 'appointing avowed homosexual activists' to state jobs."[49] The Atlantic, and others, connected the lesbian rumor to Karl Rove,[50] but Rove denied being involved.[51] Bush won the general election with 53.5 percent against Richards' 45.9 percent.[52]
Bush used a budget surplus to push through Texas's largest tax-cut ($2 billion).[46] He extended government funding for organizations providing education of the dangers of alcohol and drug use and abuse, and helping to reduce domestic violence.[citation needed]
In 1998, Bush won re-election with a record[35] 69 percent of the vote.[53] He became the first governor in Texas history to be elected to two consecutive four-year terms.[35] For most of Texas history, governors served two-year terms; a constitutional amendment extended those terms to four years starting in 1975.[54] In his second term, Bush promoted faith-based organizations and enjoyed high approval ratings.[35] He proclaimed June 10, 2000 to be Jesus Day in Texas, a day on which he "urge[d] all Texans to answer the call to serve those in need."[55]
Critics contended that during his tenure, Texas ranked near the bottom in environmental evaluations, but supporters pointed to his efforts to raise the salaries of teachers and improved educational test scores.[35]
Throughout Bush's first term, national attention focused on him as a potential future presidential candidate. Following his re-election, speculation soared.[35] Within a year, he decided to seek the Republican nomination for the presidency.
Presidential campaigns
2000 Presidential candidacy
Main article: United States presidential election, 2000
Primary
In June 1999, while Governor of Texas, Bush announced his candidacy for President of the United States. With no incumbent running, Bush entered a large field of candidates for the Republican Party presidential nomination. Along with Bush, that field of candidates consisted of John McCain, Alan Keyes, Steve Forbes, Gary Bauer, Orrin Hatch, Elizabeth Dole, Dan Quayle, Pat Buchanan, Lamar Alexander, John Kasich and Robert C. Smith.
Bush portrayed himself as a compassionate conservative. He campaigned on a platform that included increasing the size of the United States Armed Forces, cutting taxes, improving education, and aiding minorities.[35] By early 2000, the race had centered on Bush and McCain.[35]
Bush won the Iowa caucuses, and although he was heavily favored to win the New Hampshire primary, he trailed John McCain by 19% and lost that primary.[56] However, the Bush campaign regained momentum and, according to political observers, effectively became the front runner after the South Carolina primary.[57] The South Carolina campaign was controversial for the use of telephone poll questions implying that McCain had fathered an illegitimate child with an African-American woman.[56]
General election
On July 25, 2000, Bush surprised some observers by asking the Halliburton corporation's chief executive officer Dick Cheney, a former White House Chief of Staff, U.S. Representative, and Secretary of Defense, to be his running mate. Cheney was then serving as head of Bush's Vice-Presidential search committee. Soon after, he was officially nominated by the Republican Party at the 2000 Republican National Convention.
Bush continued to campaign across the country, and touted his record as Governor of Texas.[35] Bush's campaign criticized his Democratic opponent, incumbent Vice President Al Gore, over gun control and taxation.[58]
As the election returns came in on November 7, Bush won twenty-nine states including Florida. The closeness of the Florida outcome led to a recount.[35] Two initial counts went to Bush, but the outcome was tied up in courts for a month until reaching the U.S. Supreme Court. On December 9, in the Bush v. Gore case, the Court reversed a Florida Supreme Court ruling ordering a third count, and stopped an ordered statewide hand recount based on the argument that the use of different standards among Florida's counties violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.[35] The machine recount stated that Bush had won the Florida vote by a margin of 537 votes out of six million cast.[59] Bush received 271 electoral votes to Gore's 266.[60] However, he lost the popular vote by 543,895 votes,[59] surpassing the previous 1876 election record.[61] This made him one of three Presidents elected without receiving a plurality of the popular vote.
2004 Presidential candidacy
Main article: United States presidential election, 2004
George W. Bush speaks at a campaign rally in 2004
Bush commanded broad support in the Republican Party and did not encounter a primary challenge. He appointed Kenneth Mehlman as campaign manager, with a political strategy devised by Karl Rove.[62] Bush and the Republican platform included a strong commitment to the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan,[63] support for the USA PATRIOT Act,[64] constitutional amendments banning abortion and same-sex marriage,[63] reforming Social Security to create private investment accounts,[63] creation of an ownership society,[63] and mandatory carbon emissions controls.[65] Bush also called for the implementation of a temporary guest-worker program for immigrants,[63] which was criticized by conservatives.[66]
The Bush campaign advertised across the U.S. against Democratic candidates, including Bush's emerging opponent, Massachusetts Senator John Kerry. Kerry and other Democrats attacked Bush on the war in Iraq, perceived excesses of the USA PATRIOT Act and for allegedly failing to stimulate the economy and job growth. The Bush campaign portrayed Kerry as a staunch liberal who would raise taxes and increase the size of government. The Bush campaign continuously criticized Kerry's seemingly contradictory statements on the war in Iraq,[35] and claimed Kerry lacked the decisiveness and vision necessary for success in the war on terrorism.
The Bush campaign advertised across the U.S. against Democratic candidates, including Bush's emerging opponent, Massachusetts Senator John Kerry. Kerry and other Democrats attacked Bush on the war in Iraq, perceived excesses of the USA PATRIOT Act and for allegedly failing to stimulate the economy and job growth. The Bush campaign portrayed Kerry as a staunch liberal who would raise taxes and increase the size of government. The Bush campaign continuously criticized Kerry's seemingly contradictory statements on the war in Iraq,[35] and claimed Kerry lacked the decisiveness and vision necessary for success in the war on terrorism.
Bush carried thirty-one of fifty states for a total of 286 electoral votes. He won an absolute majority of the popular vote (50.7% to his opponent's 48.3%).[67] The last President to win an absolute majority of the popular vote had been Bush's father in the 1988 election. Additionally, it was the first time since Herbert Hoover's election in 1928 that a Republican president was elected alongside re-elected Republican congressional majorities in both Houses. Bush's 2.5% margin of victory was the narrowest for a victorious incumbent President up for re-election since Woodrow Wilson's 3.1% margin of victory against Charles Evans Hughes in 1916.
Bush carried thirty-one of fifty states for a total of 286 electoral votes. He won an absolute majority of the popular vote (50.7% to his opponent's 48.3%).[67] The last President to win an absolute majority of the popular vote had been Bush's father in the 1988 election. Additionally, it was the first time since Herbert Hoover's election in 1928 that a Republican president was elected alongside re-elected Republican congressional majorities in both Houses. Bush's 2.5% margin of victory was the narrowest for a victorious incumbent President up for re-election since Woodrow Wilson's 3.1% margin of victory against Charles Evans Hughes in 1916.
Presidency
Presidency


Main articles: Presidency of George W. Bush, George W. Bush's first term as President of the United States, George W. Bush's second term as President of the United States, and George W. Bush Cabinet
The Bush Cabinet
Office Name Term
President George W. Bush 2001–2009
Vice President Dick Cheney 2001–2009
Secretary of State Colin Powell 2001–2005
Condoleezza Rice 2005–2009
Secretary of Treasury Paul O'Neill 2001–2002
John Snow 2003–2006
Henry Paulson 2006–2009
Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld 2001–2006
Robert Gates 2006–2009
Attorney General John Ashcroft 2001–2005
Alberto Gonzales 2005–2007
Michael Mukasey 2007–2009
Secretary of the Interior Gale Norton 2001–2006
Dirk Kempthorne 2006–2009
Secretary of Agriculture Ann Veneman 2001–2005
Mike Johanns 2005–2007
Ed Schafer 2008–2009
Secretary of Commerce Donald Evans 2001–2005
Carlos Gutierrez 2005–2009
Secretary of Labor Elaine Chao 2001–2009
Secretary of Health and
Human Services Tommy Thompson 2001–2005
Michael Leavitt 2005–2009
Secretary of Education Rod Paige 2001–2005
Margaret Spellings 2005–2009
Secretary of Housing and
Urban Development Mel Martinez 2001–2003
Alphonso Jackson 2003–2008
Steve Preston 2008–2009
Secretary of Transportation Norman Mineta 2001–2006
Mary Peters 2006–2009
Secretary of Energy Spencer Abraham 2001–2005
Samuel Bodman 2005–2009
Secretary of Veterans Affairs Anthony Principi 2001–2005
Jim Nicholson 2005–2007
James Peake 2007–2009
Secretary of Homeland Security Tom Ridge 2003–2005
Michael Chertoff 2005–2009
Chief of Staff Andrew Card 2001–2006
Joshua Bolten 2006–2009
Administrator of the
Environmental Protection Agency Christine Todd Whitman 2001–2003
Michael Leavitt 2003–2005
Stephen Johnson 2005–2009
Director of the Office of
Management and Budget Mitch Daniels 2001–2003
Joshua Bolten 2003–2006
Rob Portman 2006–2007
Jim Nussle 2007–2009
Director of the Office of
National Drug Control Policy John Walters 2001–2009
United States Trade Representative Robert Zoellick 2001–2005
Rob Portman 2005–2006
Susan Schwab 2006–2009
Domestic policy
Main article: Domestic policy of the George W. Bush administration
Economic policy
Main article: Economic policy of the George W. Bush administration
Facing opposition in Congress, Bush held town hall-style public meetings across the U.S. in 2001 to increase public support for his plan for a $1.35 trillion tax cut program—one of the largest tax cuts in U.S. history.[35] Bush argued that unspent government funds should be returned to taxpayers, saying "the surplus is not the government’s money. The surplus is the people’s money."[35] With reports of the threat of recession from Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan, Bush argued that such a tax cut would stimulate the economy and create jobs.[68] Others, including the Treasury Secretary at the time Paul O'Neill, were opposed to some of the tax cuts on the basis that they would contribute to budget deficits and undermine Social Security.[69] By 2003, the economy showed signs of improvement though job growth remained stagnant.[35]
Under the Bush Administration, real GDP grew at an average annual rate of 2.5 percent,[70] considerably below the average for business cycles from 1949 to 2000.[71][72] The Dow Jones Industrial Average peaked in October 2007 at about 14,000, 30 percent above its level in January 2001, before the subsequent economic crisis wiped out all the gains and more.[73] Unemployment originally rose from 4.2 percent in January 2001 to 6.3 percent in June 2003, but subsequently dropped to 4.5 percent as of July 2007.[74] Inflation-adjusted median household income was flat while the nation's poverty rate increased.[75] By October 2008, due to increases in domestic and foreign spending,[76] the national debt had risen to $11.3 trillion,[77][78] an increase of over 100% from the start of the year 2000 when the debt was $5.6 trillion.[79][80] The perception of President Bush's effect on the economy was significantly affected by partisanship.[81]
In December 2007, the United States entered the second-longest post-World War II recession,[82] which included a housing market correction, a subprime mortgage crisis, soaring oil prices and a declining dollar value.[83] In February, 63,000 jobs were lost, a 5-year record.[84][85] To aid with the situation, Bush signed a $170 billion economic stimulus package which aimed to improve the economic situation by sending tax rebate checks to many Americans and providing tax breaks for struggling businesses. The Bush administration pushed for significantly increased regulation of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac in 2003,[86] and after two years, the regulations passed the House but died in the Senate. Many Republican senators, as well as influential members of the Bush Administration, feared that the agency created by these regulations would merely be mimicking the private sector’s risky practices.[87][88]
In September 2008, the crisis became much more serious beginning with the government takeover of Fannie Mae and Freddy Mac followed by the collapse of Lehman Brothers.[89] and a federal bailout of American International Group for $85 billion.[90]
Many economists and world governments determined that the situation became the worst financial crisis since the Great Depression.[91][92] Additional regulation over the housing market would have been beneficial, according to former Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan.[93] President Bush, meanwhile, proposed a financial rescue plan to buy back a large portion of the U.S. mortgage market.[94] Vince Reinhardt, a former Federal Reserve economist now at the American Enterprise Institute, said "it would have helped for the Bush administration to empower the folks at Treasury and the Federal Reserve and the comptroller of the currency and the FDIC to look at these issues more closely," and additionally, that it would have helped "for Congress to have held hearings."[88]
In November 2008, over five hundred thousand jobs were lost. That marked the largest loss of jobs in the United States in 34 years.[95]
Education and health
President Bush undertook a number of educational priorities. He increased funding for the National Science Foundation and National Institutes of Health in his first years of office, and created education programs to strengthen the grounding in science and mathematics for American high school students. Funding for the NIH was cut in 2006, the first such cut in 36 years, due to rising inflation.[96]
Bush signs the No Child Left Behind Act into law, January 2002
The Official White House Portrait of George W. Bush
One of the administration's early major initiatives was the No Child Left Behind Act, which aimed to measure and close the gap between rich and poor student performance, provide options to parents with students in low-performing schools, and target more federal funding to low-income schools. This landmark education initiative was signed into law by President Bush in early 2002.[97] Many contend that the initiative has been successful, as cited by the fact that students in the U.S. have performed significantly better on state reading and math tests since Bush signed "No Child Left Behind" into law.[98] Critics argue that it is underfunded[99] and that NCLBA's focus on "high stakes testing" and quantitative outcomes is counterproductive.[100]
After being re-elected, Bush signed into law a Medicare drug benefit program that, according to Jan Crawford Greenburg, resulted in "the greatest expansion in America's welfare state in forty years;" the bill's costs approached $7 trillion.[101] In 2007, Bush opposed and vetoed State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP) legislation, which was added by the Democrats onto a war funding bill and passed by Congress. The SCHIP legislation would have significantly expanded federally funded health care benefits and plans to children of some low-income families from about 6 million to 10 million children. It was to be funded by an increase in the cigarette tax.[102] Bush viewed the legislation as a move toward the liberal platform of socialized health care, and claimed that the program could benefit families making as much as $83,000 per year who would not have otherwise needed the help.[103]
Social services and Social Security
Following Republican efforts to pass the Medicare Act of 2003, Bush signed the bill, which included major changes to the Medicare program by providing beneficiaries with some assistance in paying for prescription drugs, while relying on private insurance for the delivery of benefits.[104] The retired persons lobby group AARP worked with the Bush Administration on the program and gave their endorsement. Bush said the law, estimated to cost $400 billion over the first 10 years, would give the elderly "better choices and more control over their health care".[105]
President Bush speaks at the United States Coast Guard Academy commencement, May 2007
Bush began his second term by outlining a major initiative to reform Social Security,[106] which was facing record deficit projections beginning in 2005. Bush made it the centerpiece of his domestic agenda despite opposition from some in the U.S. Congress.[106] In his 2005 State of the Union Address, Bush discussed the potential impending bankruptcy of the program and outlined his new program, which included partial privatization of the system,[106] personal Social Security accounts[106] and options to permit Americans to divert a portion of their Social Security tax (FICA) into secured investments. Despite emphasizing safeguards and remaining open to other plans, Democrats opposed the proposal to partially privatize the system.[106]
Bush embarked on a 60-day national tour, campaigning vigorously for his initiative in media events, known as the "Conversations on Social Security", in an attempt to gain support from the general public.[107] Despite the energetic campaign, public support for the proposal declined[108] and the House Republican leadership decided not to put Social Security reform on the priority list for the remainder of their 2005 legislative agenda.[109] The proposal's legislative prospects were further diminished by the political fallout from the Hurricane Katrina in the fall of 2005.[110] After the Democrats gained control of both houses of the Congress as a result of the 2006 midterm elections, the prospects of any further congressional action on the Bush proposal were dead for the remainder of his term in office.
Environmental and energy policies
Main article: Domestic policy of the George W. Bush administration#Environment
Upon arriving in office in 2001, Bush stated his opposition to the Kyoto Protocol, an amendment to the United Nations Convention on Climate Change which seeks to impose mandatory targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, citing that the treaty exempted 80 percent of the world's population[111] and would have cost tens of billions of dollars per year.[112] He also cited that the Senate had voted 95–0 in 1997 on a resolution expressing its disapproval of the protocol.
In 2002, Bush announced the Clear Skies Act of 2003,[113] aimed at amending the Clean Air Act to reduce air pollution through the use of emissions trading programs. It was argued, however, that this legislation would have weakened the original legislation by allowing higher levels of pollutants than were permitted at that time.[114] The initiative was introduced to Congress, but failed to make it out of committee.
President George W. Bush with Vice President Dick Cheney addressing the media at the State Department, August 14, 2006
President Bush believes that global warming is real[115] and has noted that global warming is a serious problem, but he asserted there is a "debate over whether it's manmade or naturally caused".[116] The Bush Administration's stance on global warming has remained controversial in the scientific and environmental communities. Many accusations have been made against the administration[117] for allegedly misinforming the public and not having done enough to reduce carbon emissions and deter global warming.[118]
In 2006, Bush declared the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands a national monument, creating the largest marine reserve to date. The Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument comprises 84 million acres (340,000 km²) and is home to 7,000 species of fish, birds and other marine animals, many of which are specific to only those islands.[119] The move was hailed by conservationists for "its foresight and leadership in protecting this incredible area."[120]
In his 2007 State of the Union Address, Bush renewed his pledge to work toward diminished reliance on foreign oil by reducing fossil fuel consumption and increasing alternative fuel production.[121] Amidst high gas prices in 2008, Bush lifted a ban on offshore drilling.[122] The move was largely symbolic, however, as there is still a federal law banning offshore drilling. Bush said, "This means that the only thing standing between the American people and these vast oil reserves is action from the U.S. Congress."[122] Bush had said in June 2008, "In the long run, the solution is to reduce demand for oil by promoting alternative energy technologies. My administration has worked with Congress to invest in gas-saving technologies like advanced batteries and hydrogen fuel cells... In the short run, the American economy will continue to rely largely on oil. And that means we need to increase supply, especially here at home. So my administration has repeatedly called on Congress to expand domestic oil production."[123]
In his 2008 State of the Union Address, Bush announced that the U.S. would commit $2 billion over the next three years towards a new international fund to promote clean energy technologies and fight climate change, saying, "along with contributions from other countries, this fund will increase and accelerate the deployment of all forms of cleaner, more efficient technologies in developing nations like India and China, and help leverage substantial private-sector capital by making clean energy projects more financially attractive." He has also announced plans to reaffirm the United States' commitment to work with major economies, and, through the United Nations, to complete an international agreement that will slow, stop, and eventually reverse the growth of greenhouse gases; he stated, "this agreement will be effective only if it includes commitments by every major economy and gives none a free ride."[124]
Stem cell research and first use of veto power
Federal funding for medical research involving the creation or destruction of human embryos through the Department of Health and Human Services and the National Institutes of Health has been forbidden by law since the passage in 1995 of the Dickey Amendment by Congress and the signature of President Bill Clinton.[125] Bush has said that he supports adult stem cell research and has supported Federal legislation that finances adult stem cell research. However Bush does not support embryonic stem cell research.[126] On August 9, 2001, Bush signed an executive order lifting the ban on federal funding for the 71 existing "lines" of stem cells,[127] but the ability of these existing lines to provide an adequate medium for testing has been questioned. Testing can only be done on twelve of the original lines, and all of the approved lines have been cultured in contact with mouse cells, which makes it unlikely the FDA would approve them for administration to humans.[128] On July 19, 2006, Bush used his veto power for the first time in his presidency to veto the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act. The bill would have repealed the Dickey Amendment, thereby permitting federal money to be used for research where stem cells are derived from the destruction of an embryo.[129]
Immigration
President Bush discusses border security with Homeland Security Director Michael Chertoff near the El Paso, Texas, United States-Mexico border, November 2005
In 2006, going beyond calls from conservatives to secure the border, Bush demanded that Congress allow more than twelve million illegal immigrants to work in the United States with the creation of a "temporary guest-worker program." Bush does not support amnesty for illegal immigrants,[130] but argues that the lack of legal status denies the protections of U.S. laws to millions of people who face dangers of poverty and exploitation, and penalizes employers despite a demand for immigrant labor.
The President urged Congress to provide additional funds for border security, and committed to deploying 6,000 National Guard troops to the Mexico–United States border.[131] In May-June 2007, Bush strongly supported the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007 which was written by a bipartisan group of Senators with the active participation of the Bush administration.[132] The bill envisioned a legalization program for undocumented immigrants, with an eventual path to citizenship; establishing a guest worker program; a series of border and work site enforcement measures; a reform of the green card application process and the introduction of a point-based "merit" system for green cards; elimination of "chain migration" and of the Diversity Immigrant Visa; and other measures. Bush contended that the proposed bill did not amount to amnesty.[133]
A heated public debate followed, which resulted in a substantial rift within the Republican Party, the majority of conservatives opposed it because of its legalization or amnesty provisions.[134] The bill was eventually defeated in the Senate on June 28, 2007, when a cloture motion failed on a 46-53 vote.[135] President Bush expressed disappointment upon the defeat of one of his signature domestic initiatives.[136] The Bush administration later proposed a series of immigration enforcement measures that do not require a change in law.[137]
Treatment of terrorist detainees
Following the events of September 11, Bush issued an executive order authorizing the NSA to monitor communications between suspected terrorists outside the U.S. and parties within the U.S. without obtaining a warrant pursuant to the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act,[138] maintaining that the warrant requirements of FISA were implicitly superseded by the subsequent passage of the Authorization for Use of Military Force.[139] The program proved to be controversial, as critics of the administration, as well as organizations such as the American Bar Association, claimed it was illegal.[140] In August 2006, a U.S. district court judge ruled that the Terrorist Surveillance Program was unconstitutional,[141] but the decision was later reversed.[142] On January 17, 2007, Attorney General Alberto Gonzales informed U.S. Senate leaders that the program would not be reauthorized by the President, but would be subjected to judicial oversight.[143]
On October 17, 2006, Bush signed into law the Military Commissions Act of 2006,[144] a bill passed in the wake of the Supreme Court's decision on Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 548 U.S. 557 (2006),[145] which allows the U.S. government to prosecute unlawful enemy combatants by military commission rather than a standard trial. The bill also denies them access to habeas corpus and, while barring torture of detainees, allows the president to determine what constitutes torture.[144]
On March 8, 2008, Bush vetoed H.R. 2082,[146] a bill that would have expanded Congressional oversight over the intelligence community and banned the use of waterboarding as well as other forms of enhanced interrogation techniques, saying that "the bill Congress sent me would take away one of the most valuable tools in the war on terror."[147]
President Bush has consistently stated that the United States does not torture. Bush can authorize the CIA to use the simulated-drowning method under extraordinary circumstances.[148] The CIA once considered certain enhanced interrogation techniques, such as waterboarding, legally permissible.[149] The CIA has exercised the technique on certain key terrorist suspects and were given permission to do so from a memo from the Attorney General. While the Army Field Manual argues "that harsh interrogation tactics elicit unreliable information",[149] the Bush administration states that these enhanced interrogations have "provided critical information" to preserve American lives.[150][151]
Hurricane Katrina
Main article: Political effects of Hurricane Katrina
Hurricane Katrina, which was one of the worst natural disasters in U.S. history, struck early in Bush’s second term. Katrina formed in late August during the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season and devastated much of the north-central Gulf Coast of the United States, particularly New Orleans.[152]
Bush shakes hands with New Orleans Mayor Ray Nagin on September 2, 2005 after viewing the devastation of Hurricane Katrina
Bush declared a state of emergency in Louisiana on August 27,[153] and in Mississippi and Alabama the following day;[154] he authorized the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) to manage the disaster, but his announcement failed to spur these agencies to action.[155] The eye of the hurricane made landfall on August 29, and New Orleans began to flood due to levee breaches; later that day, Bush declared that a major disaster existed in Louisiana,[156] officially authorizing FEMA to start using federal funds to assist in the recovery effort. On August 30, DHS Secretary Michael Chertoff declared it "an incident of national significance,"[157] triggering the first use of the newly created National Response Plan. Three days later, on September 2, National Guard troops first entered the city of New Orleans.[158] The same day, Bush toured parts of Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama and declared that the success of the recovery effort up to that point was "not enough."[159]
As the disaster in New Orleans intensified, critics claimed that the president was misrepresenting his administration's role in what they saw as a flawed response. Leaders attacked the president for having appointed apparently incompetent leaders to positions of power at FEMA, notably Michael D. Brown;[160] it was also argued that the federal response was limited as a result of the Iraq War[161] and President Bush himself did not act upon warnings of floods.[162][163][164] Bush responded to mounting criticism by accepting full responsibility for the federal government's failures in its handling of the emergency.[158]
Midterm dismissal of U.S. attorneys
Main article: Dismissal of U.S. attorneys controversy
During Bush's second term, a controversy arose over the Justice Department's midterm dismissal of seven United States Attorneys.[165] The White House maintains the U.S. attorneys were fired for poor performance.[166] Attorney General Alberto Gonzales would later resign over the issue, along with other senior members of the Justice Department.[167][168] The House Judiciary Committee issued subpoenas for advisers Harriet Miers and Josh Bolten to testify regarding this matter, but Bush directed Miers and Bolten to not comply with those subpoenas, invoking his right of executive privilege. Bush has maintained that all of his advisers are protected under a broad executive privilege protection to receive candid advice. The Justice Department has determined that the President's order was legal.[169] In November 2007, the chairman of the Senate Judiciary Committee, Senator Patrick Leahy (D-VT), stated that the executive privilege claim was strange considering "the President had no involvement in these firings."
Although Congressional investigations have focused on whether the Justice Department and the White House were using the U.S. Attorney positions for political advantage, no official findings have been released. On March 10, 2008, the Congress filed a federal lawsuit to enforce their issued subpoenas.[170] On July 31, 2008, a United States district court judge ruled that President Bush's top advisers are not immune from Congressional subpoenas.[171]
Public views and perception
Main articles: Criticism of George W. Bush and Public perception of George W. Bush
See also: Movement to impeach George W. Bush and Fictionalized portrayals of George W. Bush
    approve
    disapprove
    unsure
Gallup/USA Today Bush public opinion polling from February 2001 to October 2008. Blue denotes approve, red disapprove and green unsure. Large increases in approval followed the September 11 attacks, the beginning of the 2003 Iraq conflict and the capture of Saddam Hussein.
Bush began his presidency with approval ratings near 50%.[172] Following the September 11, 2001 attacks, Bush gained an approval rating of greater than 85%, maintaining 80–90% approval for four months after the attacks. Since then, his approval ratings and approval of his handling of domestic and foreign policy issues have steadily dropped. Bush has received heavy criticism for his handling of the Iraq War, his response to Hurricane Katrina and to the Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse, NSA warrantless surveillance, Plame affair and Guantanamo Bay detention camp controversies.[173]
Bush began his presidency with approval ratings near 50%.[172] Following the September 11, 2001 attacks, Bush gained an approval rating of greater than 85%, maintaining 80–90% approval for four months after the attacks. Since then, his approval ratings and approval of his handling of domestic and foreign policy issues have steadily dropped. Bush has received heavy criticism for his handling of the Iraq War, his response to Hurricane Katrina and to the Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse, NSA warrantless surveillance, Plame affair and Guantanamo Bay detention camp controversies.[173]
A March 13, 2008 poll by the Pew Research Center for the People and the Press reported that 53% of Americans—a slim majority—believe that "the U.S. will ultimately succeed in achieving its goals" in Iraq.[174] That figure is up from 42 percent in September 2007 and the highest it has been since 2006.[174]
A March 13, 2008 poll by the Pew Research Center for the People and the Press reported that 53% of Americans—a slim majority—believe that "the U.S. will ultimately succeed in achieving its goals" in Iraq.[174] That figure is up from 42 percent in September 2007 and the highest it has been since 2006.[174]
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President Bush thanks American military personnel, September 2007
Bush's approval rating has been below the 50% mark in AP-Ipsos polling since December 2004.[178] Polls conducted in 2006 showed an average of 37% approval ratings for Bush;[179] the lowest for any second term president in this point of term since Harry S. Truman in March 1951, when his approval rating was 28%,[178][180] which contributed to what Bush called the "thumping" of the Republican Party in the 2006 mid-term elections.[181] Throughout 2007, Bush's approval rating hovered in the mid-thirties percentile,[182] although in a Reuters poll of October 17, 2007, Bush received a lower approval rating of 24%,[183] the lowest point of his presidency.[184] In response to the numbers, during a February 10, 2008 interview on Fox News Sunday Bush stated, "I frankly don't give a damn about the polls".[185] By April 2008, Bush's disapproval ratings were the highest ever recorded in the 70-year history of the Gallup poll for any president, with 69% of those polled disapproving of the job Bush was doing as president and 28% approving.[186] In September 2008, Bush's approval rating ranges from 19%[187] to 34% in polls performed by different agencies.[188]
Bush's approval rating has been below the 50% mark in AP-Ipsos polling since December 2004.[178] Polls conducted in 2006 showed an average of 37% approval ratings for Bush;[179] the lowest for any second term president in this point of term since Harry S. Truman in March 1951, when his approval rating was 28%,[178][180] which contributed to what Bush called the "thumping" of the Republican Party in the 2006 mid-term elections.[181] Throughout 2007, Bush's approval rating hovered in the mid-thirties percentile,[182] although in a Reuters poll of October 17, 2007, Bush received a lower approval rating of 24%,[183] the lowest point of his presidency.[184] In response to the numbers, during a February 10, 2008 interview on Fox News Sunday Bush stated, "I frankly don't give a damn about the polls".[185] By April 2008, Bush's disapproval ratings were the highest ever recorded in the 70-year history of the Gallup poll for any president, with 69% of those polled disapproving of the job Bush was doing as president and 28% approving.[186] In September 2008, Bush's approval rating ranges from 19%[187] to 34% in polls performed by different agencies.[188]
In 2006, 744 professional historians surveyed by Siena College regarded Bush's presidency as follows: Great: 2%; Near Great: 5%; Average: 11%; Below Average: 24%; Failure: 58%.[189] Thomas Kelly, professor emeritus of American studies at Siena College, said that "In this case, current public opinion polls actually seem to cut the President more slack than the experts do."[189] Similar outcomes were retrieved by two informal surveys done by the History News Network in 2004[190] and 2008.[191] The historian who organized the HNN polls said of the results: "It is in no sense a scientific sample of historians. The participants are self-selected, although participation was open to all historians. Among those who responded are several of the nation’s most respected historians, including Pulitzer and Bancroft Prize winners."[191] In response to the "worst president" accusations,[192][193] Bush said, "to assume that historians can figure out the effect of the Bush administration before the Bush administration has ended is... in my mind... not an accurate reflection upon how history works."[185]
In 2006, 744 professional historians surveyed by Siena College regarded Bush's presidency as follows: Great: 2%; Near Great: 5%; Average: 11%; Below Average: 24%; Failure: 58%.[189] Thomas Kelly, professor emeritus of American studies at Siena College, said that "In this case, current public opinion polls actually seem to cut the President more slack than the experts do."[189] Similar outcomes were retrieved by two informal surveys done by the History News Network in 2004[190] and 2008.[191] The historian who organized the HNN polls said of the results: "It is in no sense a scientific sample of historians. The participants are self-selected, although participation was open to all historians. Among those who responded are several of the nation’s most respected historians, including Pulitzer and Bancroft Prize winners."[191] In response to the "worst president" accusations,[192][193] Bush said, "to assume that historians can figure out the effect of the Bush administration before the Bush administration has ended is... in my mind... not an accurate reflection upon how history works."[185]
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