Tätertypologien: Unterschied zwischen den Versionen

Aus Krimpedia – das Kriminologie-Wiki
Zur Navigation springen Zur Suche springen
Zeile 25: Zeile 25:


USA
USA
== Aktuelle Tätertypologien und ihre Kritik ==
Richard Jenkins und Lester Hewitt unterschieden aufgrund (psychiatrischer) Erfahrung zwischen pseudosozialen Jungen und unsozialisierten aggressiven Jugendlichen. Erstere wären psychisch normale junge Leute in einem antisozialen Umfeld, während die letzteren asoziale, gewalttätige Jugendliche seien, die schwerwiegende elterliche Zurückwiesungen erlebt hätten.
Aktueller ist die psychologische Tätertypologie von Marguerite Warren ("Interpersonal Maturity Levels; I-Levels"). Warren ging davon aus, dass erfolgreich sozialisierte Jugendliche durch sieben Stadien der Anpassung gingen - von infantiler Abhängigkeit bis zu erwachsener Reife und interpersoneller Kompetenz. Wer auf einer früheren Stufe nicht mehr weiterkommt, agiert in einer nicht-erwachsenen Art. Delinquente befinden sich meist auf den drei untersten Stufen der Reife (Abhängigkeit von Gleichaltrigengruppen etc.).
Die Brauchbarkeit des I-Level-Modells ist wegen des Mangels an Kontrollgruppen und anderer (Validitäts-) Schwächen bezweifelt worden (vgl. Gibbons 1970).
Eine weitere psychologische Typologie beruht auf dem für Straftäter erstellten Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (Megargee et al.) - mit dem Problem, dass viele Nicht-Straftäter wahrscheinlich ähnliche Profile hätten.
Klinische Erfahrungen führten auch zu Typologien von Mördern, Sexualdeinquenten usw.
Hinzu kommen Rollentypologien, die von Mithäftlingen erstellt werden. In diesem Sinne traut z.B. Clarence Schrag der Insassen-Kategorisierung (von männlichen Gefangenen) ebenso viel Realitätsgehalt zu wie den wissenschaftlichen Typologien. Er berichtete von "square Johns," "right guys," "outlaws," bzw. "politicians" (S. 346–356). Die entscheidende Variable ist die Loyalität zu anderen Gefangenen. Der "right guy" ist seinen Mitgefangenen gegenüber loyal (Kritik: Peter Garabedian, Robert Leger).
Sociologische Typologien. The state and federal criminal codes represent a typology into which lawbreakers might be placed. For example, offenders could be classified on the basis of the crime with which they are currently charged. However, criminal codes do not meet the parsimony criterion; in addition, offenders violate different laws over time, which challenges the requirement of mutual exclusivity.
Sociological criminologists have attempted to overcome such problems with legal codes by developing offender typologies that assign persons who engage in similar collections of offenses to particular criminal behavior systems, role careers, or criminal behavior patterns. Typological efforts have also sought to discover offender groupings whose members share social background factors and causal experiences. In short, criminologists have tried to identify sociologically meaningful types.
One of these sociological typologies was constructed by Marshall Clinard and Richard Quinney, who used both offense-and person-centered criteria to define nine criminal behavior systems, including those involving violent personal criminal behavior, public-order criminal behavior, and occasional property criminal behavior (pp. 14–21). They also discussed the criminal careers of offenders who fell into these groupings, implying that individuals in fact specialize to some degree.
Daniel Glaser has also offered a typological description of offenders. He identified ten offender patterns delimited by "offense descriptive variables" and "career commitment variables." Among his types, the "adolescent recapitulator" engages in an assortment of offenses; his criminality reflects a failure to assume a stable adult role. Glaser's "vocational predators" pursue crime as a livelihood. In this typology, drug addicts constitute another category, that of "addicted performers" (pp. 27–66).
Glaser's scheme exhibits a number of flaws. First, it omits certain offenders, such as political criminals involved in political protest, and perpetrators of relatively petty offenses that are sometimes termed folk crimes—for example, traffic violations or fish and game law violations. Second, the adolescent recapitulator and certain other types are based on causal processes separating these offenders, rather than on their offense patterns and criminal careers. Third, although his descriptions of the types provide considerable detail consistent with much research on lawbreakers, Glaser's typology does not spell out the identifying characteristics of the offender categories with sufficient precision; one would be hard put to assign a population of actual offenders to these types.
Don Gibbons developed detailed and comprehensive typologies for both juvenile delinquents and adult offenders (1965, pp. 75–125; 1979, pp. 85–92). These typologies establish offender categories on the basis of the offenses in which the person is currently involved, his or her criminal career or prior criminal record, and the self-concept and role-related attitudes of the lawbreaker. For instance, one adult offender type, the "naïve check forger," writes bad checks on his or her own bank account, shows little criminal skill, views himself or herself as a noncriminal, and expresses such views as "you can't kill anyone with a fountain pen." Some of Gibbons's types rest on research findings reported by criminologists: Edwin Lemert's study of naïve check forgers provided some of the information on which Gibbons based this type description. Other types are grounded in criminological theory. In all, Gibbons established nine delinquent and fifteen adult offender categories.
What portion of the offender population falls within these types? Although no research has directly investigated the juvenile typology, the available data seem inconsistent with Gibbons's type descriptions (Gibbons and Krohn). The most striking evidence on delinquent behavior emphasizes its transitory or episodic character. Self-reported or so-called hidden delinquents most commonly indicate that they have been involved in infrequent and petty acts of lawbreaking, while juvenile offenders who turn up in the juvenile justice system often engage in numerous illegal acts rather than a few forms of lawbreaking. Researchers have been able to identify some of the latter as "serious and/or violent offenders" or as "chronic delinquents," but have not been able to make finer distinctions among them (Loeber, Farrington, and Waschbusch). In short, the delinquency typology posits more patterning of behavior among juvenile offenders than actually exists.
Gibbons's adult offender typology has been directly examined, and, as will be presently shown, other studies of offenders that bear on the question of empirical congruence are also relevant to this analysis.
Clayton Hartjen and Gibbons asked county probation officers to sort probationers into Gibbons's typology categories. The raters used abridged typological profiles of offenders; moreover, groups of three officers acted as independent judges who read the probationers' case files in order to determine to which types, if any, these persons belonged. Slightly less than half of the probationers were assigned to a type, although Hartjen subsequently placed most of the unassigned cases into seven ad hoc groups.
James McKenna also studied Gibbons's adult offender typology. Having examined their arrest records, he classified inmates in a state correctional institution into twelve offender types. McKenna then sought to determine whether the combinations of characteristics said to differentiate types actually existed among offenders. In only one of the twelve types did the hypothesized pattern of behavior and social-psychological characteristics emerge; that is, the vast majority of prisoners assigned to a particular type did not consistently exhibit similar attitudes and other differentiating features. These findings indicate that many real-life offenders cannot be assigned with precision in existing criminal typologies.
Other research studies as well have raised doubts about the accuracy of offender typologies. Joan Petersilia, Peter Greenwood, and Marvin Lavin studied forty-nine individuals serving prison terms for armed robbery. Their average age was thirty-nine, and thus most had been criminally active for some years. When these offenders were asked the number of times they had committed any of nine specific crimes since becoming involved in lawbreaking, they confessed to more than 10,000 offenses, or an average of 214 per person. Even more striking was the diversity of offenses: 3,620 drug sales, 2,331 burglaries, 1,492 automobile thefts, 995 forgeries, 993 major thefts, and 855 robberies. This finding undermines the assumption of offense specialization among lawbreakers and seriously challenges most offender typologies.
Another study by Mark Peterson, Harriet Braker, and Suzanne Polich involved over six hundred prison inmates who were asked to indicate the number and kinds of crimes they had committed during the three years prior to their present incarceration. For each type of crime, most of those who reported doing it said they did so infrequently, but a few of them confessed to engaging in the crime repeatedly. The researchers concluded that there are two major kinds of offenders: occasional criminals and broadly active ones. Few prisoners claimed to have committed a single crime at a high rate; thus there were few crime specialists in prison.
In still another investigation, Jan and Marcia Chaiken studied 2,200 jail and prison inmates in three states who were given a lengthy questionnaire that included self-report crime items. They were then asked to report the number of times they had committed robberies, assaults, burglaries, forgeries, frauds and thefts, and drug deals. About 13 percent of them said they had committed none of the offenses in the previous two years, while the rest reported involvement in one or more of the offenses, but most commonly, at relatively low rates. Also, while a sizable minority of the prisoners admitted having frequently committed one or more crimes prior to incarceration, most of them reported having been involved in crime-switching, rather than crime specialization.
Female offenders. Until relatively recently, criminologists paid relatively little attention to types of juvenile or adult female offenders. An implicit assumption has been that most female delinquents come to the attention of the police or the juvenile court, either because of minor misbehavior or sexual promiscuity. Similarly, a common presumption has been that many adult women offenders are petty thieves such as shoplifters while others have been involved in domestic violence, often directed at their common law or legal spouses.
However, in recent years, investigators have begun to examine female lawbreaking in more detail. In particular, considerable attention has focused on the different routes or pathways through which women enter into lawbreaking. One case in point is Eleanor Miller's research on women who have been involved in "street hustling," that is, a pattern of property crimes, drug use, and prostitution. She reported that there are four pathways that lead to street hustling. Mary Gilfus has provided parallel findings regarding women who have been involved in street crime. Similarly, Kathleen Daly has sorted female felons into several types, based on the kinds of offenses they have committed and their relationships' with spouses, boyfriends, and other associates. Then, too, investigators have directed attention at females who have been involved in homicides. Taken together, these studies indicate that there are a number of patterns or types that are involved in female criminality.


Von 1980 bis heute
Von 1980 bis heute


== Kriterien der Typenbildung ==
== Kriterien der Typenbildung ==

Version vom 29. Dezember 2007, 02:46 Uhr

Typologien (v. griech. typos „Urbild, Vorbild“) sind die Lehren von der Zuordnung bzw. Zugehörigkeit von Einzelnen (Individuen oder Sachverhalten) zu Gruppen, deren Teilmengen ebenfalls die wesentlichen Merkmale der Einzelnen aufweisen. So gibt es Sprachtypologien, mit denen man aufgrund gemeinsamer Merkmale Gruppen von Sprachen bildet (Finnisch und Ungarisch gehören aufgrund bestimmter gemeinsamer Merkmale in die kleine Spezialgruppe der "finnugrischen Sprachen"). Solche Zuordnungen zu Typen erlauben dann die Aufstellung von weiteren Hypothesen über andere Gemeinsamkeiten (z.B. über den Ursprung beider Sprachen). Tätertypologien dienen ebenfalls der Ordnung und damit der Orientierung und der weiteren Hypothesenbildung und Erklärung von Zusammenhängen. Täter können z.B. im Hinblick auf die von ihnen begangenen Taten klassifiziert werden. Differenzierungskriterien können aber auch die Motivation, die Vorgehensweise bei der Tatbegehung (Modus Operandi) oder die Gefährlichkeit des Täters im Hinblick auf das Risiko weiterer Taten sein.

Tätertypologien erlauben die Zuordnung vergangener, gegenwärtiger und zukünftiger Straftäter zu Gruppen. Typologien können verschiedene Zwecke verfolgen und bergen zugleich verschiedene Risiken. Wer eine Allgemeine Kriminalitätstheorie für zu komplex (oder unmöglich) hält, wird sich auf eine Theorie geringerer Reichweite beschränken und dafür eine Reduktionsformel benötigen. So könnte man z.B. eine Theorie der Jugend- oder der Eigentums- und Vermögenskriminalität entwickeln. Dafür bedürfte es dann einer Tätertypologie nach Alter oder nach Deliktsform. Es wäre genau zu beschreiben, wie sich Jugendkriminalität von derjenigen der Erwachsenen "im Prinzip" unterscheidet - und dafür wäre eine nach dem Merkmal "Alter" konstruierte Tätertypologie eine nützliche Vorbedingung.

Auch könnten die Straftaten einer Gruppen von Personen mit besonderen psychischen Schwierigkeiten zu erklären sein, während diese Erklärung für andere Personen und ihre Delikte nicht von Belang wäre. Um eine solche Hypothese zu überprüfen, wäre eine Tätertypologie nach psychischen Merkmalen unabdingbar, denn man will ja wissen, um welche Gruppe von Tätern es sich handelt und wie sie von anderen Tätern zu unterscheiden wäre.

Tätertypologien können auch für Präventionsprogramme und für die (Sozial-) Therapie im Strafvollzug von Interesse sein. Der Erfolg solcher Bemühungen beruht ja nicht zuletzt auf dem Wissen darüber, welche spezifischen Probleme welchen Taten zugrundeliegen.

Andererseits sind die Zuordnungen zu Typen nicht ohne Informationsverlust bezüglich der einzigartigen Merkmale jedes einzelnen Falles zu haben. Die Gefahr der Vereinfachung, der "falschen Abstraktion" (Hegel) oder des Schubladen-Denkens ist mit Typologien aller Art verknüpft, ist aber im Hinblick auf die Folgen für die Betroffenen im Bereich von Überwachung, Kontrolle und Bestrafung von besonderer Bedeutung.



Geschichte

Die Vielfalt der Unterschiede zwischen den Gefängnisinsassen - die man lange Zeit für gleichbedeutend hielt mit der Vielfalt der Unterschiede zwischen Straftätern insgesamt - hat seit dem Beginn kriminologischer Erklärungsversuche zu Typenbildungen geführt. Cesare Lombroso unterschied gegen Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts zwischen "geborenen Kriminellen", "Kriminaloiden" und "Schwachsinnigen". Als einer der großen Gegenspieler Lombrosos unterschied Franz v. Liszt zwischen den "Besserungsfähigen", den "Abschreckbaren" und den "Unverbesserlichen", wobei zu den letzteren insbesondere die "unverbesserlichen Gewohnheitsverbrecher" zu zählen seien. In Deutschland gehörte die Einteilung der Täter in bestimmte Gruppen ("Typen") bis zur Entstehung der kritischen Kriminologie zu den Pflichtübungen eines jeden lehrenden oder lehrbuchschreibenden Kriminologen, so z.B. von Franz Exner und Edmund Mezger. In anderen Ländern, wo es sich während der ersten Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts ebenso verhielt, wurden Tätertypologien nach 1945 nicht in demselben Maße desavouiert wie in Deutschland. Speziell in den USA waren etwa die Typologien der Gluecks und ihrer Nachfolger nach 1945 von großer praktischer Bedeutung - und erlebten zudem nach einer Phase der Relativierung eine Renaissance im Rahmen der Sexualtäter-Typologien nach Robert K. Ressler bzw. der Vergewaltigungs-Täter-Typen in den 1990er Jahren.


Drittes Reich

USA

Aktuelle Tätertypologien und ihre Kritik

Richard Jenkins und Lester Hewitt unterschieden aufgrund (psychiatrischer) Erfahrung zwischen pseudosozialen Jungen und unsozialisierten aggressiven Jugendlichen. Erstere wären psychisch normale junge Leute in einem antisozialen Umfeld, während die letzteren asoziale, gewalttätige Jugendliche seien, die schwerwiegende elterliche Zurückwiesungen erlebt hätten. Aktueller ist die psychologische Tätertypologie von Marguerite Warren ("Interpersonal Maturity Levels; I-Levels"). Warren ging davon aus, dass erfolgreich sozialisierte Jugendliche durch sieben Stadien der Anpassung gingen - von infantiler Abhängigkeit bis zu erwachsener Reife und interpersoneller Kompetenz. Wer auf einer früheren Stufe nicht mehr weiterkommt, agiert in einer nicht-erwachsenen Art. Delinquente befinden sich meist auf den drei untersten Stufen der Reife (Abhängigkeit von Gleichaltrigengruppen etc.).

Die Brauchbarkeit des I-Level-Modells ist wegen des Mangels an Kontrollgruppen und anderer (Validitäts-) Schwächen bezweifelt worden (vgl. Gibbons 1970). Eine weitere psychologische Typologie beruht auf dem für Straftäter erstellten Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (Megargee et al.) - mit dem Problem, dass viele Nicht-Straftäter wahrscheinlich ähnliche Profile hätten.

Klinische Erfahrungen führten auch zu Typologien von Mördern, Sexualdeinquenten usw.

Hinzu kommen Rollentypologien, die von Mithäftlingen erstellt werden. In diesem Sinne traut z.B. Clarence Schrag der Insassen-Kategorisierung (von männlichen Gefangenen) ebenso viel Realitätsgehalt zu wie den wissenschaftlichen Typologien. Er berichtete von "square Johns," "right guys," "outlaws," bzw. "politicians" (S. 346–356). Die entscheidende Variable ist die Loyalität zu anderen Gefangenen. Der "right guy" ist seinen Mitgefangenen gegenüber loyal (Kritik: Peter Garabedian, Robert Leger).

Sociologische Typologien. The state and federal criminal codes represent a typology into which lawbreakers might be placed. For example, offenders could be classified on the basis of the crime with which they are currently charged. However, criminal codes do not meet the parsimony criterion; in addition, offenders violate different laws over time, which challenges the requirement of mutual exclusivity.

Sociological criminologists have attempted to overcome such problems with legal codes by developing offender typologies that assign persons who engage in similar collections of offenses to particular criminal behavior systems, role careers, or criminal behavior patterns. Typological efforts have also sought to discover offender groupings whose members share social background factors and causal experiences. In short, criminologists have tried to identify sociologically meaningful types.

One of these sociological typologies was constructed by Marshall Clinard and Richard Quinney, who used both offense-and person-centered criteria to define nine criminal behavior systems, including those involving violent personal criminal behavior, public-order criminal behavior, and occasional property criminal behavior (pp. 14–21). They also discussed the criminal careers of offenders who fell into these groupings, implying that individuals in fact specialize to some degree.

Daniel Glaser has also offered a typological description of offenders. He identified ten offender patterns delimited by "offense descriptive variables" and "career commitment variables." Among his types, the "adolescent recapitulator" engages in an assortment of offenses; his criminality reflects a failure to assume a stable adult role. Glaser's "vocational predators" pursue crime as a livelihood. In this typology, drug addicts constitute another category, that of "addicted performers" (pp. 27–66).

Glaser's scheme exhibits a number of flaws. First, it omits certain offenders, such as political criminals involved in political protest, and perpetrators of relatively petty offenses that are sometimes termed folk crimes—for example, traffic violations or fish and game law violations. Second, the adolescent recapitulator and certain other types are based on causal processes separating these offenders, rather than on their offense patterns and criminal careers. Third, although his descriptions of the types provide considerable detail consistent with much research on lawbreakers, Glaser's typology does not spell out the identifying characteristics of the offender categories with sufficient precision; one would be hard put to assign a population of actual offenders to these types.

Don Gibbons developed detailed and comprehensive typologies for both juvenile delinquents and adult offenders (1965, pp. 75–125; 1979, pp. 85–92). These typologies establish offender categories on the basis of the offenses in which the person is currently involved, his or her criminal career or prior criminal record, and the self-concept and role-related attitudes of the lawbreaker. For instance, one adult offender type, the "naïve check forger," writes bad checks on his or her own bank account, shows little criminal skill, views himself or herself as a noncriminal, and expresses such views as "you can't kill anyone with a fountain pen." Some of Gibbons's types rest on research findings reported by criminologists: Edwin Lemert's study of naïve check forgers provided some of the information on which Gibbons based this type description. Other types are grounded in criminological theory. In all, Gibbons established nine delinquent and fifteen adult offender categories.

What portion of the offender population falls within these types? Although no research has directly investigated the juvenile typology, the available data seem inconsistent with Gibbons's type descriptions (Gibbons and Krohn). The most striking evidence on delinquent behavior emphasizes its transitory or episodic character. Self-reported or so-called hidden delinquents most commonly indicate that they have been involved in infrequent and petty acts of lawbreaking, while juvenile offenders who turn up in the juvenile justice system often engage in numerous illegal acts rather than a few forms of lawbreaking. Researchers have been able to identify some of the latter as "serious and/or violent offenders" or as "chronic delinquents," but have not been able to make finer distinctions among them (Loeber, Farrington, and Waschbusch). In short, the delinquency typology posits more patterning of behavior among juvenile offenders than actually exists.

Gibbons's adult offender typology has been directly examined, and, as will be presently shown, other studies of offenders that bear on the question of empirical congruence are also relevant to this analysis.

Clayton Hartjen and Gibbons asked county probation officers to sort probationers into Gibbons's typology categories. The raters used abridged typological profiles of offenders; moreover, groups of three officers acted as independent judges who read the probationers' case files in order to determine to which types, if any, these persons belonged. Slightly less than half of the probationers were assigned to a type, although Hartjen subsequently placed most of the unassigned cases into seven ad hoc groups.

James McKenna also studied Gibbons's adult offender typology. Having examined their arrest records, he classified inmates in a state correctional institution into twelve offender types. McKenna then sought to determine whether the combinations of characteristics said to differentiate types actually existed among offenders. In only one of the twelve types did the hypothesized pattern of behavior and social-psychological characteristics emerge; that is, the vast majority of prisoners assigned to a particular type did not consistently exhibit similar attitudes and other differentiating features. These findings indicate that many real-life offenders cannot be assigned with precision in existing criminal typologies.

Other research studies as well have raised doubts about the accuracy of offender typologies. Joan Petersilia, Peter Greenwood, and Marvin Lavin studied forty-nine individuals serving prison terms for armed robbery. Their average age was thirty-nine, and thus most had been criminally active for some years. When these offenders were asked the number of times they had committed any of nine specific crimes since becoming involved in lawbreaking, they confessed to more than 10,000 offenses, or an average of 214 per person. Even more striking was the diversity of offenses: 3,620 drug sales, 2,331 burglaries, 1,492 automobile thefts, 995 forgeries, 993 major thefts, and 855 robberies. This finding undermines the assumption of offense specialization among lawbreakers and seriously challenges most offender typologies.

Another study by Mark Peterson, Harriet Braker, and Suzanne Polich involved over six hundred prison inmates who were asked to indicate the number and kinds of crimes they had committed during the three years prior to their present incarceration. For each type of crime, most of those who reported doing it said they did so infrequently, but a few of them confessed to engaging in the crime repeatedly. The researchers concluded that there are two major kinds of offenders: occasional criminals and broadly active ones. Few prisoners claimed to have committed a single crime at a high rate; thus there were few crime specialists in prison.

In still another investigation, Jan and Marcia Chaiken studied 2,200 jail and prison inmates in three states who were given a lengthy questionnaire that included self-report crime items. They were then asked to report the number of times they had committed robberies, assaults, burglaries, forgeries, frauds and thefts, and drug deals. About 13 percent of them said they had committed none of the offenses in the previous two years, while the rest reported involvement in one or more of the offenses, but most commonly, at relatively low rates. Also, while a sizable minority of the prisoners admitted having frequently committed one or more crimes prior to incarceration, most of them reported having been involved in crime-switching, rather than crime specialization.

Female offenders. Until relatively recently, criminologists paid relatively little attention to types of juvenile or adult female offenders. An implicit assumption has been that most female delinquents come to the attention of the police or the juvenile court, either because of minor misbehavior or sexual promiscuity. Similarly, a common presumption has been that many adult women offenders are petty thieves such as shoplifters while others have been involved in domestic violence, often directed at their common law or legal spouses.

However, in recent years, investigators have begun to examine female lawbreaking in more detail. In particular, considerable attention has focused on the different routes or pathways through which women enter into lawbreaking. One case in point is Eleanor Miller's research on women who have been involved in "street hustling," that is, a pattern of property crimes, drug use, and prostitution. She reported that there are four pathways that lead to street hustling. Mary Gilfus has provided parallel findings regarding women who have been involved in street crime. Similarly, Kathleen Daly has sorted female felons into several types, based on the kinds of offenses they have committed and their relationships' with spouses, boyfriends, and other associates. Then, too, investigators have directed attention at females who have been involved in homicides. Taken together, these studies indicate that there are a number of patterns or types that are involved in female criminality.

Von 1980 bis heute

Kriterien der Typenbildung

Typenbildung ist besonders problematisch und unzuverlässig, wenn sie lediglich der Intuition einer Person oder den vorherrschenden Vorurteilen in einer Gesellschaft folgt. Daher wäre es für eine wissenschaftliche oder wissenschaftlich fundierte Zwecksetzung der Typologie von Nutzen, wenn sie bestimmten Vorgaben entspräche. Erstens sollte eine Typologie klar genug sein. Zweitens sollte sie nach Möglichkeit klare Zuordnungen ermöglichen, d.h. ein Täter sollte nur einer und nicht zwei Kategorien zugeordnet werden. Drittens ist Sparsamkeit wünschenswert, d.h. eine möglichst geringe Anzahl von Typen. Viertens sollten Typologen nach Möglichkeit keine (große) Residualkategorie für die nicht zuordnungsfähigen Fälle vorsehen müssen.


Literatur

Kluge, Susann (1999) Empirisch begründete Typenbildung. Zur Konstruktion von Typen und Typologien in der qualitativen Sozialforschung. Opladen: Leske & Budrich 1999.

Links

http://law.jrank.org/pages/2213/Typologies-Criminal-Behavior-Criteria-criminal-typologies.html